Zombie fish

00:00:07
Speaker 1: If you sit on the banks of the estuaries in southern California and Baja California, the seat of your pants will get super money. But also you'll likely see schools of silvery fish swimming through the water. If you watch closely, some of those silvery fish will begin behaving rather strangely. They'll shoot upwards quickly, breaking the water surface and creating these super conspicuous ripples on the surface. Or they'll turn on their sides as they scratch their bodies against a rock. As they do this, their silvery bellies reflect the sun and create this quick and vibrant flash of light.

00:00:45
Speaker 2: Why are they doing this?

00:00:47
Speaker 1: These fish are bite size to the sharks and the predatory birds that sometimes roam these estuaries in search of food. Shouldn't they be trying to look a little less conspicuous. Why are they drawing so much attention to themselves. Well, it's me speaking, so you've probably guessed that the answer is parasites.

00:01:07
Speaker 2: Today we're going to talk about you.

00:01:09
Speaker 1: Heplurcus california aansis a brain infecting parasite of California chillefish, which are the silvery fish dancing through the waters in California that we were just talking about. Welcome to Daniel and Kelly's extraordinarily infected universe.

00:01:38
Speaker 3: Hi. I'm Daniel, I'm a particle physicist, and I hope I'm parasite free.

00:01:43
Speaker 2: Hello. I'm Kelly Wiersmith.

00:01:44
Speaker 1: I study exactly what we're talking about today, and I'm okay if I'm harboring a parasite or two, depending on what they are.

00:01:52
Speaker 3: All right, Well, that was actually my question for you, Kelly, if you had to harbor a parasite, what would be your parasite of choice?

00:01:59
Speaker 1: All right, Well, so I probably have some demodex mites on my face.

00:02:03
Speaker 2: I'm okay with that.

00:02:05
Speaker 1: You know, they might not count as a parasite depending on you know, what they're doing on the given day.

00:02:09
Speaker 3: Are those the ones that live in your pores and climb out? And there was uncertainty at whether or not they had anuses or if they just exploded when they got filled up.

00:02:16
Speaker 1: That's right, but they do have anuses. Science figured that out recently. Way to go science.

00:02:22
Speaker 3: What's better that they're taking a dump on your face? They're exploding on your face? I don't know. I don't feel great about either option.

00:02:28
Speaker 1: Yeah, I think in the end, you know, the waste ends up on your face either way. So Daniel almost spit his coffee out there.

00:02:35
Speaker 2: It's just great.

00:02:38
Speaker 3: How do you know we're talking about biology because it's poop on your face in the first five minutes.

00:02:42
Speaker 2: That's right, this is a chilly lead episode.

00:02:45
Speaker 1: I don't know that we'll get to cannibalism today though, so that's too bad.

00:02:48
Speaker 3: See. Yeah, I'll do my best to bring us there.

00:02:50
Speaker 2: Yeah, okay, all right.

00:02:51
Speaker 1: You know, I guess I wouldn't be too upset if I had one or two pinworms. I wouldn't mind having a small load of pinworms because they probably wouldn't hurt me that much.

00:03:02
Speaker 3: Pinworms aren't those the ones that at night crawl out and like make you itch in uncomfortable places?

00:03:08
Speaker 1: Yeah, I mean, no, parasite is good, right, Like that would defy the definition of parasite. I'm trying to pick something that would be least bad, and pinworms are probably it. Although not a lot of adults get pinworms.

00:03:21
Speaker 2: What about you? Oh man, you're making a lot of curse faces today. I wish we did video.

00:03:31
Speaker 3: There is no parasite I would be happy with. Yes, absolutely, no, that was an answer. Yes, that's my answer. It just creeps me out. It just bothers me to imagine like something living inside of me, treating me like a cave or like a habitat or something like. No, I would just like I would get a rusty spoon and dig it out.

00:03:51
Speaker 1: Okay, hold on, is this a question of magnitude? Because you have billions of bacteria living in your gut doing exactly what you just described.

00:03:59
Speaker 3: Katrina is convinced to me that they are part of me. I contain multitudes, I am multitudes.

00:04:04
Speaker 1: Why can't the demodex and the pinworms be part of your multitudes?

00:04:09
Speaker 3: Not invited to the party. No, okay, No, there's a fuzzy but bright line between the microbial invaders and then non microbial invaders. Maybe it's just because I'm married to a microbiologist and not a parasologist. Do you think Zach would be happy having parasites within him?

00:04:27
Speaker 2: Absolutely not.

00:04:28
Speaker 1: But but so one of the things that made me interested in microbiome science initially was this idea that there's a connection between the brain and the gut, and that microbes sometimes release neurotransmitters that.

00:04:45
Speaker 2: Can speak to you, know, speak, I'm being.

00:04:48
Speaker 1: Super anthromorphic here, but influence influence, Like you know, there are nerves that go from your brain to your gut, and the neurotransmitters released by those microbes, you know, might be influencing how we feel about certain things. And so I became super interested in this idea that the way that we respond to the world might be influenced by the things that are living inside of us. And my advisor at the University of California, Davis Andy C who is amazing I adore him. One day was like, Kelly, have you heard about toaso plasma gandhi. It's a parasite that you can get from your cat that changes your behavior. And in a very early Listener Questions episode, we talked about like how good the science is, what we know about that, so you can look for that. But that started me on my journey being like interested in how parasites impact behavior.

00:05:38
Speaker 2: And so today we're going to talk about you know, what I spent a decade.

00:05:43
Speaker 1: It wasn't supposed to be that long, what I spent a decade working on, And this is.

00:05:48
Speaker 3: All the research we're going to talk about today already published.

00:05:52
Speaker 1: Yes, because I think my collaborators would appreciate if the two papers that we haven't quite finished yet, we're.

00:06:00
Speaker 2: Not highlighted on the episode.

00:06:04
Speaker 1: I don't care, but they are, you know, still hoping to get tenures. So I will I will not mention those in press or in prep results.

00:06:14
Speaker 3: But yeah, I do agree, that's super fascinating, and it makes a lot of sense that the things living inside of us don't just live inside of us. They influence us. They change the way our bodies work, and that includes potentially changing our behavior because we are these biological machines and the decisions we make are not divorced from that, right, they're completely influenced by that. But still, I find it okay to imagine that my microbiome is influencing the decisions I make in the way I perceive the world. But I do feel hijacked if there's like some critter living inside me that's forcing me to like eat that second donut.

00:06:52
Speaker 1: Yeah, well, so I think there's a difference in goal in some cases, you know. So like I would like to think that a lot of you are my grow biome is in sync with you. You know, the microbiome wants you to thrive, so that they can thrive. But for a lot of the systems that I've ended up working in, the host needs.

00:07:12
Speaker 2: To die for the parasite to thrive.

00:07:15
Speaker 1: And so when we're looking at manipulation, which is what I sort of specialized in grad school, which is an instance where the host's behavior is changing in a way that's driven by the parasite in a way that's usually bad for the host but good for the parasite. You know, that's that's very different than what you're imagining. But folks might remember that we did a zombie ant episode a little while back, And what I love about these systems is that often parasites are changing behaviors of their hosts in ways that we couldn't replicate in a lab like and by way I mean neuroscientists, you know, So like ants, they've got these simple little brains relative to humans, you know, but we still couldn't get the ants to do these like series of behaviors that this fungus, like operating the ant by remote control, can get the ant to do. And so you know, through the process of natural selection, this fungus has essentially acquired the ability to control ant behavior, and it you know, in a very anthropomorphic sense. It knows neuroscience better than we do, and so I love these systems as a way to you know, maybe jumpstart our understanding of how brains work by like studying what these parasites have essentially learned about how brains work over evolutionary history. And so I get super excited about, you know, using parasites as tools to understand how brains work. Although, as we'll discover over the course of this episode, neuroscience baffles me, and so I mostly focus on the behavior stuff and then collaborate with neuroscientists.

00:08:50
Speaker 3: All right, So today we're not talking about the things living in Daniel's gut or toxoplasmi or zombie ants or any of that kind of stuff. What is the system that you and ten years of your life.

00:09:01
Speaker 1: Exploring, oh Man, Okay, So in Baja California, in southern California, in estuarys so. Estuaries are areas where the ocean is coming in and there's a freshwater system meeting the ocean. So it's where freshwater and saltwater are mixing. They tend to be super productive areas where like baby fish are growing and sharks will come in to eat.

00:09:23
Speaker 2: Some food, and there's a lot of crabs and stuff like that. They're super productive systems. They are these tiny little fish. They are silvery.

00:09:30
Speaker 1: They're you know, like maybe the adults are a bit bigger than the length of your maybe middle finger, but they're not as big as like your whole hand, so they're you know, somewhere in between.

00:09:42
Speaker 2: They're pretty small. They're pretty drab.

00:09:44
Speaker 1: The males will sometimes have some yellow coloration during the breeding season, but in general they're just like these silvery, kind of drabfish.

00:09:51
Speaker 3: And they're called killyfish, killyfish, not kellyfish, not killfish, killy fish, killyfish. What does that mean? A?

00:10:00
Speaker 2: I don't know. I don't know. Why are they called killy fish?

00:10:04
Speaker 3: You only spent ten years studying it and never thought, why are they have this silly name?

00:10:09
Speaker 1: Well, stuff doesn't always mean stuff. You know, that was really articulate of me. I don't I don't think it's I don't know that it means anything.

00:10:21
Speaker 3: See, it's of uncertain origin, but it's likely to have come from the Dutch kill for a small stream.

00:10:30
Speaker 1: Nah, if you say so.

00:10:37
Speaker 3: So these sillily named fish.

00:10:39
Speaker 1: Yeah, So, Actually, when I met Zach the person who would eventually become my husband. He asked me what I studied and I said killy fish. And he said, you study kelly fish and I said no, no, killyfish, and for a while left that he called me kelly fish, which is kind of cute. But anyway, so these are super abundant fish. They're social, so they they're you know, you off and find them in big schools. And Kevin Lafferty and Kimo Morris in the nineties they notice that if you walk around in the estuaries and you look into all of these like channels, you see schools of these fish swimming by, but they're really obvious, Like there are other schools of fish that will swim by and you sort of like don't really notice them. But when the chilly fish swim by, they start doing all of these weird behaviors. It's like they're dancing through the water. They'll like break the surface of the water and you'll see these obvious ripples and then they'll be all these flashes of silver because they're they're shooting forward, they're turning on their sides, they're rubbing against things, they're contorting in the shape of s they're just doing all of these like really conspicuous behaviors that the other fish species didn't seem to be doing. And then you bring a bunch of fish back into the lab and you survey what's happening in the estuaries, and you discover that the California chillifish have a bunch of parasites on their brain, which makes you wonder, is that what's going on?

00:11:55
Speaker 3: So is that the reason they began studying this fish? Were they the first people to study this fish, or is this like a well known model fish in the community.

00:12:03
Speaker 1: A bunch of people have studied this fish, but not in relation to the fact that it had a brain infecting parasite. Because it's a superabundant fish in these super productive ecosystems, people have studied other things about them, like how the heck do these fish survive the fact that when the ocean goes out and the river is still coming in, the salinity goes from like, you know, almost completely fresh water, and then when the ocean comes in it's almost completely saltwater? How do they survive that? But a lot of people hadn't been studying the parasite stuff.

00:12:32
Speaker 3: Because I don't know if it's widely appreciated. But in biology, we have like these model systems where we don't study things in the wild. We have like a few things that we grow in the lab and study in detail. You know, mice and fruitflies and all sorts of stuff. And I wonder, like what makes an animal suitable to be selected? But these are being studied in the wild, right, So it's because of their interesting behaviors and these fascinating questions, right, not because they're quick to grow or they eat something easy or anything.

00:13:00
Speaker 2: Yeah, right, So I hate these guys.

00:13:02
Speaker 1: So so uh, it turns out so mummy chugs, which is Fungilus heteroclitis. I study Fungilius parva pinnis, but a closely related species on the opposite coast is very easy to study in the lab.

00:13:16
Speaker 2: This is a model species.

00:13:18
Speaker 1: We've got the genome, we've got a bunch of genetic tools. You can grow them up super easy. But fungilis part of a pinnis You bring into the lab and it is really hard to keep them from dying, which is crazy because they live in these environments where the salinity is changing. You'd like they survive all of these extremes. You'd think you bring them in the lab where life is easy, they would.

00:13:38
Speaker 2: Thrive, and they do not. And I don't know why.

00:13:41
Speaker 1: And I like, literally years of my PhD was figuring out how to keep them happy in the lab. And that's probably why they're not a model organism, because they're little jerks. You think about them at home at night, and they start dying in the lab.

00:13:54
Speaker 3: All right. So these guys Lafferdy and Morris notice these fascinating behaviors and they studied these fish and what did they learn about them?

00:14:03
Speaker 1: Okay, well, so they brought the fish into the lab and they were like, oh my gosh, the brains of these fish are like carpeted by this parasite on their brain. Like a thousand parasites on the brain of an adult is pretty typical.

00:14:19
Speaker 2: Eight thousand can happen sometimes too.

00:14:21
Speaker 1: So there are these tiny little like cysts, these tiny little balls. They almost could look like their little glass balls. And this is a trematod parasite. So a trematoad parasite that you might have heard of is schistosoma. Mansonite causes shistosomiasis. This is a problem in places like Africa. This parasite is also a trematoid parasite, not necessarily particularly closely related to that one, but this is the only other trematode you're likely to have heard of, and it has a complex life cycle. And let's go through the life cycle because it helps you understand why this parasite might want to make the fish behave conspicuously.

00:14:58
Speaker 3: And this is the life cycle of the fish, or of the parasite, or the harmonious combination.

00:15:03
Speaker 2: Of the parasite.

00:15:04
Speaker 1: All right, and I'm gonna start calling the parasite Youha, because you have blurcis California asis is way too much to say every time.

00:15:13
Speaker 3: All right, so tell us about Uha's lifestyle.

00:15:15
Speaker 1: Okay, So youh accidentally gets consumed by California horn snails that live in the salt marshes. Bad news for the snails. The snails get castrated.

00:15:27
Speaker 2: By the parasite. What I know, it's crazy.

00:15:31
Speaker 3: Chemically or like surgically, I mean, are we losing bits of the body here or are they just becoming deactivated?

00:15:36
Speaker 1: Well, okay, so all of the gonads, I'm not quite sure how you're imagining this, but the gonads are.

00:15:41
Speaker 3: All you don't want to know how I'm imagining.

00:15:44
Speaker 1: Yeah, no, I didn't ask you to explain it. And so the gonads are inside of the snail. All of the gonad tissue ends up being taken up by parasite tissues. The parasite start replicating, replicating, replicating, replicating, replicating, and they produce a stage that will swim out from the snail to go off in search of fish.

00:16:05
Speaker 3: This is nightmare fuel already, Kelly.

00:16:08
Speaker 1: It is, and these snails can still live for like a decade or more with this parasite. And when the tide comes in in the summer, up to two thousand of the free swimming stages of this parasite can emerge from the snail to go off in search of fish. It's crazy, and okay, parasites have social lives, all right.

00:16:26
Speaker 2: So look, I'm gonna be honest everybody.

00:16:28
Speaker 1: This is gonna be a little bit of a ranty episode because I love this parasite and I've just spent a decade like falling in love with its weirdness.

00:16:36
Speaker 3: Okayyi, this warning is fifteen minutes too late, Kelly.

00:16:42
Speaker 1: Guys and Daniel tried to get me on track before the start of this episode. He's like, Kelly, I can tell you're gonna get ranty. Let's focus, and I'm here. I am being like, sorry, Daniel.

00:16:51
Speaker 3: All right, ran away really quick.

00:16:53
Speaker 2: Okay.

00:16:53
Speaker 1: So, once you're inside of a snail and you've taken control of a gonad, there are other trematodes that would like to come in and usurp the gonad that you're living in. And so you have Lurcis Californian sas and other trematode species out in the estuary make a stage called a soldier, and the soldier is essentially just like a giant mouth that patrols the snail, and if another stage comes in, it will go. At this stage in their life, they're essentially just giant bags of fluid, and so it will like try to pop the other bags of fluid so that they can't come in and take control of the snail gonad. And so anyway, they've got reproductive stages that are like making this free swimming stage of the parasite reproducing, reproducing, reproducing, and then they're making a bunch of soldiers that are patrolling the snail to keep everything safe.

00:17:40
Speaker 2: It's just absolutely amazing to me.

00:17:42
Speaker 3: That there's this like grand battle for the snail gonad exactly, yes, incredible. And so these parasites are working together, they're like cooperating with each other against the snail and against competing parasites.

00:17:53
Speaker 1: Yes, but they're also they're reproducing asexually, so they're like all clones. So it's like the exact same individual clone clone, clone, clone clone, but some of them look like soldiers, some of them look like reproductives. But like if you were to sequence them genetically, they're all like the same.

00:18:11
Speaker 3: All right, So it's like the snail gonad hive. Mind. Ye, that sounds like the title of.

00:18:15
Speaker 2: A book I'd like to read, sure, yeah, or the book I'd like to write.

00:18:18
Speaker 1: And so all right, when the tide comes in in the summers, when the water is nice and warm, thousands of these parasites leave the snail and each one of them has a very low probability of finding the fish, and they only live for like twenty four hours. They're like little sacks of energy and they're gonna run out real fast. But if they do encounter the fish, we think what happens is they burrow through the fish's skin, they find a nerve and they follow that nerve up to the fish's brain and then they go on top of the brain and they form a cyst on the brain, so they're not in the brain tissue. They're like resting on top of the brain.

00:18:53
Speaker 3: And why do they want to be on top of the brain.

00:18:55
Speaker 2: Ah, there's a couple of different ideas there.

00:18:57
Speaker 1: So one of the ideas, and this was like a very early idea, is that if you're on top of the brain, you're kind of protected from the immune response, because if the brain's immune system overreacts, then that could be really.

00:19:10
Speaker 2: Bad for the fish. That could kill the fish.

00:19:12
Speaker 1: The fish could start like swimming on its side, then it could get eaten by another fish. And so by being in an area where the host can't allow the immune system to attack too strongly, you sort of increase your odds of survival.

00:19:24
Speaker 2: But it could also be because it's.

00:19:26
Speaker 1: A pretty good place if you're going to be trying to manipulate behavior, that's a good location from which to do that.

00:19:33
Speaker 3: Yeah, that makes sense. And so there are multiple of these parasites crawling up the fish nerve to the brain. Are they all working in tandem like they did in the snail gonet. Are they now fighting each other for who gets to like ratitude drive this fish?

00:19:48
Speaker 1: That's a great question, so hard to say. We think that they are working together because usually you see signs of competition between parasites. But when we studied this, we saw some evident that they were cooperating. And so the way that we measured this was we looked at the volume of the parasites. As the density of parasites increased. So usually what you see is that as you get more and more parasites crammed into the same size of a space, they start getting smaller, and that's probably because they're competing for food resources. But what we saw was that the more parasites you got crammed onto the brain of a fish, the bigger the parasites.

00:20:28
Speaker 3: Seemed to get because they're cooperating.

00:20:30
Speaker 1: Yeah, which suggested to us maybe they're secreting some compound that suppresses the immune system, or they're creating some compound that manipulates behavior, and the more of them that are present, the less each one needs to create in order to accomplish the same goal.

00:20:46
Speaker 3: So even though they're not identical, they can still cooperate.

00:20:49
Speaker 2: Maybe so these were fish that were caught in the wild.

00:20:52
Speaker 1: This was just an observational study, So this is indirect evidence that maybe they are cooperating, and we didn't see the same thing happening when we look at trematodes that we're living in their liver. So it looks like, you know, maybe there's some cooperation happening. We don't know for sure.

00:21:07
Speaker 3: All Right, these ideas have parasited my brain and they are now gratituding me to suggest that we should take a break, so everybody can go off and cleanse their mind from snail gonads, and when we'll come back, we'll discover what these parasites do to these poor little killyfish. Okay, we're back. Welcome to the Kelly Rants about Parasites episode. So you've been telling us about how these parasites grow in the snail gonads and then crawl up the nerve into the brains of these killyfish and work together to influence them. But you're also talking about this nineteen ninety six paper by Lafferty and Morris, the sort of the seminole work on this. What did they find initially about how these parasites affected the behavior of these fish.

00:22:12
Speaker 1: Yeah, but in order to understand the results of the Laffarty and Morris study, you need to understand where the parasites have to get after they're in the fish.

00:22:20
Speaker 3: Oh wait, the fish is not the end of the cycle. There's more.

00:22:24
Speaker 2: There's more, there's more.

00:22:25
Speaker 3: The nightmare continues, people, it does, it does.

00:22:28
Speaker 1: Okay, So all right, so you've got like a bunch of parasites on the brains of the fish. But actually the last host that the parasite needs to get to are predatory birds.

00:22:38
Speaker 2: And so once a California killyfish gets eaten by a.

00:22:40
Speaker 1: Predatory bird, the digestive juices in the predatory birds start breaking down the fish. That breaks down the cysts that the parasites are in. The parasites break out of the cysts, they find love, they find a mate, they produce eggs.

00:22:55
Speaker 3: So being eaten by the bird is bad for the fish, but good for the parasite exactly.

00:23:00
Speaker 1: Yes, the parasite cannot complete its life cycle unless the fish gets eaten by a bird.

00:23:05
Speaker 2: And if the fish gets eaten by a shark, that's bad.

00:23:08
Speaker 1: For the parasites. They have to get eaten in a certain way. There are wrong ways to get eaten and right ways to get eaten.

00:23:13
Speaker 3: I gotta say, these parasites are bad engineers. This whole thing is every time I hear about a parasite life cycle, it's some ridiculously complicated Rube Goldberg machine where everything has to go just right.

00:23:24
Speaker 1: Yeah, well, in another episode, we should talk about the evolution of these life cycles, because we think that they came about because like, you know, so say it started at the snail, and you got the parasites that leave the snail, and maybe they were going off in search of another snail. The idea is that so many of them were getting eaten by fish it made more sense to capture fish as a host in your life cycle than to you know, just keep getting eaten by fish. And in this way complexity arose, so you know, this complexity might be better than what was happening before.

00:23:54
Speaker 3: It's also the kind of example that makes me just like sort of squish up my eyebrows when somebody says nature is so obviously designed, because I'm like, nobody would design this. This is a mess.

00:24:05
Speaker 2: This is a mess, it really is. It's wild, all right.

00:24:09
Speaker 3: So now they're happy that they're in these birds and they've killed these poor chilly fish by feeding them to these birds.

00:24:14
Speaker 1: Then what happens, okay, and then when the bird poops, they poop the parasite eggs out into the salt marsh, where the snails accidentally eat the eggs and the cycle starts again.

00:24:24
Speaker 2: So that is the life sign.

00:24:25
Speaker 3: Oh my gosh. Wow. All right, so it really is a loop.

00:24:29
Speaker 2: It really is a loop.

00:24:30
Speaker 3: Snails eat them, they grow in the gonads, then they crawl up the fish into the brain influence. The fish get eaten by birds, and then the birds poop them out and they're eaten by snails and the cycle continues.

00:24:41
Speaker 2: Yes, right, okay.

00:24:42
Speaker 1: So Kevin Lafferty and Chemo Morris were out in the estuaris in southern California and they were looking at these California killyfish populations, which they knew they had a bunch of parasites on their brains.

00:24:54
Speaker 2: And they saw these fish just like.

00:24:57
Speaker 1: Doing all of these weird, conspicuous behaviors, and they knew that this parasite had to get to birds next. So they thought to themselves, are all of those weird behaviors that the fish are doing things that they're doing to try to draw the attention of the predatory birds, so that the predatory birds will eat the fish that are behaving conspicuously. So they went to a population that doesn't have the parasite so that they could get naturally uninfected fish.

00:25:23
Speaker 3: Are there populations that don't have the parasite?

00:25:25
Speaker 2: Yes?

00:25:26
Speaker 3: Why is that?

00:25:27
Speaker 1: So there's populations that have the parasite and populations that don't, and they differ in actually kind of a lot of ways. So the way you get a population that doesn't have the parasite usually is that the population becomes landlocked in some way. So for example, on the campus of the University of California, Santa Barbara, there is a lagoon that has California killeyfish in it and because it isn't tidally influenced.

00:25:52
Speaker 2: Or maybe for some other reason.

00:25:53
Speaker 1: I don't know a lot about snails, but for whatever reason, there's not snails in there, and so this environment doesn't have the snaw. Without the snails, you don't get the parasite, you don't get the life cycle. But you also don't have tides, which means the fish aren't like you know, going out into the ocean. Sometimes they're not comming. Like the whole system is different in a bunch of ways. And so these fish differ not only in that they don't have the parasite, they also differ in a lot of like their daily activities, the predators that they encounter, blah blah, blah, blah blah.

00:26:23
Speaker 3: And immediately this makes me wonder if they're a good control sample, right, because they're different, not just in the fact that they don't have the parasite, but in all these other ways. And somebody out there might be thinking that's bad science. But my reaction is like, well, this is where the experimental science comes in, right, and understanding those differences and can you draw conclusions and what can you do to quantify your uncertainties about them? So what kind of conclusions could they draw from this other sample, a slightly different fish.

00:26:51
Speaker 1: Well, so they were very clear about the limitations in the study. They you know, they pointed out, it's a different population, it differs for a variety of reasons. This should be the start of our studies in this system, not the end of our studies in this system. But I'm going to tell you about the rest of the study that they did, and then I'm going to tell you that like two decades later, I did the follow up work to address this problem.

00:27:18
Speaker 3: As is often the case, the nuance is lost and the bigger story sort of dominates the lore.

00:27:23
Speaker 1: Yeah, I'm gonna jump ahead a little bit and tell you that this paper has been cited over seven hundred times and continues to clock a bunch of citations. And my paper that was the boring study that was like super painstaking, is not getting anywhere near that many citations. But anyway, it's still interesting and you're gonna have to listen to it, everybody, thank you, so, all right, So they got fish from a population without the parasites. Yea, they got fish from a population that had the parasites, but they also had a bunch of other parasites, because the fish in these systems, they're not just infected by the parasite on their they're infected by something like seven other truma toad.

00:28:03
Speaker 2: Parasites as well.

00:28:04
Speaker 3: Oh my god.

00:28:05
Speaker 2: Yeah, they're just like riddled with paras lousy with parasites, lousy with parasites. All right.

00:28:09
Speaker 1: So they brought them into the lab and what they noticed was that the fish that had parasites on their brain were doing about three to four fold more conspicuous behaviors than the fish from the population without the parasites, So they were doing these conspicuous behaviors a lot more often. And then they set up enclosures in a lagoon where the fish would be out in these enclosures, and predatory birds could wade in and eat whatever fish they wanted and then come back out again. And then after about fifty percent of the fish had been eaten or something, they went out and they looked to see which fish had been eaten and which fish were left behind.

00:28:46
Speaker 3: So these enclosures paint me a picture of them. I was imagining first that like sectioned off various parts of the lagoon. But are these things open from the top? Why did the birds have to wade in?

00:28:56
Speaker 1: So these were along the shoreline, and it was a net that sort of went out from the shoreline, traveled along the shoreline, and then came back to the shoreline. So it had like three netted sides, and they did that twice, and one side they covered so that they could just measure how often the fish were just sort of like escaping from the net. And then the fish could either just sort of drop from the top in if they wanted, or they could walk along the beach and wade in.

00:29:25
Speaker 2: Oh, I see along that way.

00:29:27
Speaker 3: So the death from swooping down to gobble your lunch is still an option, yep.

00:29:30
Speaker 1: Still an option, okay. And so what they found was that the fish that had more parasites were more likely to be eaten. And the way they inferred that was when they did the dissections afterwards. They would have expected to see, you know, something like ten fish with a thousand parasites on their brain, but they didn't see any fish with a thousand parasites on their brain. Most of the fish that were left had very few parasites on their brain. And so they end up concluding that the more parasites you have on the brain, the more conspicuous behaviors you do, and the more likely you are to be e and by predatory birds.

00:30:01
Speaker 3: And I feel like that's a story I've heard before, that parasites manipulate host behavior makes it more likely for them to be eaten. Was this like the first time that had been observed in detail? Was this a new story just in this animal or more.

00:30:13
Speaker 1: Broadly, this was not the first time, like, you know, since the seventies, I think people had been talking about this, but this was one of the first times it had been well studied in a vertebrate and one of the first times there was a really elegant experiment that showed that not only was the parasite associated with the behavior that seemed intuitively like it really should be increasing risk for the host, but also then they showed that, like, yeah, the predatory birds are actually eating the infected fish. The authors were like really good about explaining all of the caveats, like all of the limitations of the study, and like this paper got me. You know, I spent the next decade following up on this paper. I found this study super exciting, and I moved to Santa Barbara for two years to study underneath the lab that did this work.

00:31:03
Speaker 3: Wow.

00:31:03
Speaker 2: Yeah, this is like a now classic example of manipulation.

00:31:07
Speaker 3: And in their first paper, do they come up with a causal mechanism to explain this or is it more just correlational? More parasites means more behavior, and therefore we're inferring that the parasites are causing the behavior.

00:31:19
Speaker 2: It's correlational.

00:31:20
Speaker 1: Yeah, and so there's another parasite that they quantify that is living in the liver, and they look for correlations between this liver trematode and conspicuous behaviors as well, and they find some correlations, but the correlations are stronger with the brain parasite, and so they hypothesize that from its location in the brain, this parasite is probably hijacking behavior, and so there's probably something about being in the brain that helps the parasite do that. But you know, since they hadn't actually done experiments on mechanisms, they leave that to future work, and their post doc Jenny Shaw, actually would go ahead and follow up on that, which way will talk about a little bit later in.

00:31:59
Speaker 3: The r tradition of leaving the hard questions to future work, as we all do in our papers. Ooh, that's important weakness in my study. I'm going to say, that's future work.

00:32:11
Speaker 2: Yeah, well, you know, you can't do everything all at once.

00:32:13
Speaker 3: No, you certainly can't. I do that all the time. But I guess that leaves us open to the possibility that the parasites are not causing this behavior, but there's some third unknown thing which is causing both the parasites and the behavior, for example, which would induce a correlation as well.

00:32:29
Speaker 2: Yes, right.

00:32:29
Speaker 1: Okay, So first of all, there's the problem of them coming from different populations and the populations differing in a lot of ways. Second, there's the problem that not all of the parasites in the wild fish were quantified. It could be some other parasite or some combination of parasites that we're causing the problem. And so this is not an ideal study design, as noted by the authors. Right, Ideally, what you'd want to do is, you know, get fish from a population that has like an evolutionary history with the pairs site, bring them into the lab, like maybe hatch them in the lab, grow them up in the lab, infect some of them with the parasite, and a lot of folks when they infect fish with parasites, they'll infect them like once with like five thousand parasites, whereas actually, when they're in nature, they start acquiring parasites like almost as soon as they hatch, and they acquire like two or three every day. And you can imagine a brain would respond very differently to like getting yeah, like slammed with five thousand parasites and one day, you know, relative to picking up a few every day. So yeah, ideally you'd hatch fish in a lab, infect them a little bit every day, leave some fish as controls where they don't get infected, and then observe how their behaviors change over time.

00:33:42
Speaker 3: And that gives us some more direct answer to this question, because we're inducing the effect, so we're not open to the possibility that something else is causing both the parasite and the behavior. That's right, all right, So let's take a break and when we come back, we'll hear all about Kelly's painstaking slog through through the questions of the killyfish. All right, we're back, and we've sort of set up the question. Now we understand what the killyfish is and the life cycle of this parasite, what people had studied, the sort of clickbaity result that's gotten a lot of attention, and now Kelly, as is her wont is going to pour cold water all over all that understanding.

00:34:38
Speaker 1: Since you said clickbaity, you know, Kevin Lafferty, one of the authors, is a good friend of mine, so I don't feel like he clickbaited it. He was very clear about the limitations, but it took off and had a life of its own.

00:34:49
Speaker 3: Right now, it sounds like they were responsible and clear about the limitations and didn't overstate their conclusions.

00:34:55
Speaker 2: Yes, perfect, thank you. Okay, But as is.

00:34:57
Speaker 3: Often the case, if you have nuance in your paper, that's some times overlooked in the coverage. Yes, even if it's not the author's fault.

00:35:03
Speaker 2: Yeah, yes, right, that absolutely happened. Okay.

00:35:06
Speaker 1: So, working with Ryan Heckinger and oven Overly, we decided that we were going to try to do a bit of a better design to try to nail down exactly what this brain infecting parasite was doing. And so what we did was we went out to an estuary and during the full moon when the killy fish breed over the summer, we went out there and we said.

00:35:26
Speaker 2: Excuse me, mister and missus killy fish, may we please have some gammeats?

00:35:30
Speaker 3: Why did the killy fish only breed during the full moon? I mean, I yet, it's romantic, but like the system was complicated enough without introduced like astronomical coincidences.

00:35:41
Speaker 2: I don't know.

00:35:42
Speaker 1: It would have been great if we could have gone out there more often. But it's synced up to.

00:35:45
Speaker 3: The moon, all right, So there's some were wolf connection here we don't know about.

00:35:50
Speaker 2: That's right, that's right.

00:35:51
Speaker 1: But I was like six months pregnant at the time, and so we were like, you know, very gently getting the fish to release their gam meats into a bucket for us so that we could fertilize eggs. And I was trying really hard to not puke into the gam meat bucket, as like so many science moms before me have had to try to avoid doing.

00:36:09
Speaker 3: So you're pleasuring these fish by hand to get them to produce these gam meats.

00:36:13
Speaker 2: Nice, That's not how I'd put it, But all right, this.

00:36:16
Speaker 3: Is the glamorous work of science.

00:36:17
Speaker 2: It's the glamorous work of ecology.

00:36:19
Speaker 1: But so we were able to actually hatch a bunch of fish in the lab, and then we went out and we collected snails and we figured out which snails were infected by HU and you can get them to repeatedly give you the same, you know, genotypes of the parasites over and over and over again. But we collected a bunch of the snails so we could get a bunch of different genotypes of the parasites. We kept those snails in the lab. Unfortunately, we had to get snails from like one estuary down. We had hoped to get everything from the same estuary. That's a long story, but anyway, so we were able to get our parasites, able to get our fish. They were hatched, and then twice a week every week we did controlled infections in their tanks. Wow. And so we would like extract some parasites, we would put it in a vial, we would slowly lower the viol into the tank, and we'd leave it in there overnight, so they slowly built up infections. And at one point we went out into the wild and we collected wildfish and we were able to confirm that we had about the same number of parasites in our fish as you found in the wildfish at the same time. So we had sort of mimicked what was happening in the wild, which was a ton of work good for us.

00:37:33
Speaker 3: And again, the goal of mimicking what's happening in the wild is to have a little bit more control over it. And you have some fish with the parasites and some fish without the parasites to get a better understanding of like the actual mechanism here.

00:37:45
Speaker 1: Well, yeah, and because if we eventually want them to have like two thousand parasites on their brain, like they would have in the wild. We didn't want to slam them with two thousand parasites all at once because that could kill them, and so we were trying to sort of slowly build it up so that what was happening in the wild was also happening in the last and so we did that. We did have a slightly higher density because our fish didn't grow quite as fast as the wildfish.

00:38:07
Speaker 2: We don't know why that's annoying.

00:38:12
Speaker 3: Why won't biol as you'd just obey my commands, right, I know, I know.

00:38:17
Speaker 1: And so anyway, then we measured the behavior of the fish at three, seven and eight months of age, and we found out that there were a bunch of different conspicuous behaviors that were measuring. The effect that was the most pronounced was that the fish that had parasites on their brain darted.

00:38:33
Speaker 2: About twice as much as the control fish. So that was the main effect.

00:38:37
Speaker 1: I thought the main effect was going to be scratching, because to me, the most obvious conspicuous behavior when you're standing on the shoreline is when they flip on their sides and the sun reflects off of their belly. That really draws my attention. But the behavior that seems to be impacted is what we call darting. So this is when a fish sort of like out of nowhere, it will shoot forward really quick, like something really scared it, and then it's like it forgot that it was afraid and it just goes back to its normal behavior.

00:39:05
Speaker 2: And it's really weird.

00:39:06
Speaker 1: So darting is a behavior that fish often use when a predator is around. But when they dart, they're darting like behind a piece of vegetation, or they're like darting into like a turbid zone, like you know, there's like a plume of sand and they're darting into the middle so that they can hide. It's very strange to see a fish dart forward and then immediately resume normal movement. And so the idea here is that if they dart forward, they draw the attention of the predatory bird, and then if they're not hiding afterwards, they're very easy to like hone in on. Maybe we haven't actually like done videos just show that that's exactly what's happening.

00:39:42
Speaker 3: And so there were some categories of behavior you were looking for, scratching, darting, et cetera. How did you come up with these categories, is there a possibility that there's some kind of category of behavior that the fish are doing different between the two populations that you didn't think to observe.

00:39:58
Speaker 2: Yeah, that's so.

00:39:58
Speaker 1: First of all, in in Lafferty and Morris's paper, they watched the fish for a long time. They came up with like any category of weird behavior that they could think of. That's called like an ethogram, where you watch for a long time and you you know, take notes on any behaviors that you think are relevant.

00:40:14
Speaker 3: But it feels a little subjective.

00:40:15
Speaker 2: Right, yes, behavior exactly, Yes, it is sort of subjective.

00:40:23
Speaker 1: I'll actually be very interested in what AI does to this field, because if you can have computers analyzing everything about behavior, it's some you know, is a computer able to analyze behavior in a way that's different and maybe less subjective than how human eyes do. And there's some programs now that analyze behaviors that weren't available when I was doing it.

00:40:43
Speaker 3: No, it's still going to be biased, just in a way you don't understand as well.

00:40:46
Speaker 2: Yeah, no, you might be right.

00:40:48
Speaker 1: So anyway, so I looked at their ethogram, what what behaviors they thought were important and then I watched also and looked to see if I was seeing something different. And I've also watched fish from a couple of different estuaries, so this is not the only study I've done with these fish. And so I've spent a lot of time staring.

00:41:05
Speaker 3: At fish, the glamorous work of science.

00:41:09
Speaker 2: That's right, that's right. Maybe I haven't captured all the important behaviors, but I feel like I.

00:41:14
Speaker 3: Have all right. And so you saw this darting effect, so compare contrast that with the original effect in the earlier.

00:41:20
Speaker 2: Paper less strong.

00:41:22
Speaker 1: So before they didn't see that darting was the behavior most strongly associated with this brain infecting parasite, and they saw that behaviors were like four times more pronounced in their infected fish. So we're seeing a different behavior most strongly impacted by the parasite and a lower magnitude. And we don't know if that's because it was a different population that we.

00:41:43
Speaker 2: Were looking at.

00:41:44
Speaker 1: It could be because the wildfish in the other study had a whole community of parasites, and a lot of those community of parasites also go to predatory birds. Maybe each of those parasites are like manipulating a different part of the behavior, or like they're all sharing the cost of manipulating. There's a lot of different reasons, but at the end of the day, what I found was that the effect is a little bit more complicated and a little bit smaller than what had been found before.

00:42:13
Speaker 2: So no one cites my work exactly.

00:42:19
Speaker 3: But this was the exact goal of this studies to tease this part and try to understand more specifically what is the effect of this parasite. Yes, and so the answer is that on its own, this parasite is not doing everything that the original guy saw.

00:42:32
Speaker 2: That's right, that's right.

00:42:33
Speaker 1: But so let's dive in a little bit to what we know about how the parasite might be doing this. Yeah, the first thing you usually wonder when you discover that a infected organism is getting eaten by another organism more often is like, well, is the parasite just debilitating it in some way? Like is it just making it slower, easier to catch or something? And that doesn't seem to be the case. So, first of all, you know, just like observations, if you watch these fish, they've got eight thousand parasites on the brain. Man, it's like a carpet. It's so crazy to see all these parasites. But they're not like swimming on their sides, they're not having trouble catching their food. They school normally, like they look normal. And my friend Laura Nadler, who worked on this system as a postdoc, she stuck them in these little metabolic chambers and she measured their acute metabolism, so she like, you know, got them to swim real fast.

00:43:24
Speaker 2: And I don't really know how you do this kind of stuff and fish.

00:43:27
Speaker 3: This is like what they do to Olympic athletes.

00:43:28
Speaker 2: Right, treadmills And yeah, I don't know how you treadmill.

00:43:31
Speaker 3: Is I'm imagining a fish on a treadmill right now?

00:43:33
Speaker 2: Yeah, yeah, yeah.

00:43:34
Speaker 1: She did a bunch of different things to like get their like maximum metabolic rate and they're resting metabolic rate and blah blah blah.

00:43:40
Speaker 3: Okay, she fed them red bull and stuff like this.

00:43:43
Speaker 2: I'm sure she did. Yeah, I'm sure she got a protocol and a permit and all.

00:43:46
Speaker 1: That for that. And what she found, like using our fish from our lab experiments where we had like hatched them in the lab, infected, some didn't infect others that the infected fish, and the uninfected fish had like no difference in metabolism, So it doesn't look like having a bunch of fish on your brain is that energetically expensive. Like, they're pretty efficient at resource extraction when they're on the brain. They're like, you know, semi dormant after they finish growing, So it doesn't seem like it's that. And their body condition is good if you compare them to uninfected fish. They have, like their gonads are about the same size because ecologists do grow stuff like way gonads, and like they seem just as good at having babies. They have the same amount of fat reserves. Like, so it doesn't seem like they're making them debilitated in any way that we can measure.

00:44:35
Speaker 3: Well, what about coming at it from the other direction and asking, like, how is the parasite benefiting, because that might be the other side of the equation. If the parasite is like extracting something specific from the brain or from the fish, then maybe you could understand the impact of losing that on the fish.

00:44:50
Speaker 1: Uh so, Okay, So the idea would be that, like the parasite is extracting like a neurotransmitter or something.

00:44:58
Speaker 3: I don't know what is the benefit to the parasite.

00:45:01
Speaker 2: What do you mean, what is the benefit of the parasite.

00:45:02
Speaker 3: To being on the brain? Like, what is this doing there that's helping it?

00:45:07
Speaker 1: Yeah, So usually what the parasites do at this stage is they grow a little and then they kind of like they reach you know, asymptotic growth. They grow, and then they stop growing. And I think they mostly stop growing because while they're growing, they're forming a cyst around them, and this cyst protects them from the immune system. And when that cyst finishes growing, they've sort of run out of room to grow, and so that's as big as they're going to get. But presumably they can extract some resources across the cyst wall and maybe even secrete some stuff across the cyst wall. Presumably somebody has looked to see what they are sucking up on the brain, but I don't think we've looked to see if they're like specifically, like I think they're sucking up like nutrients and stuff, but I don't know if they're specifically sucking up like serotonin to try to mess with brain stuff.

00:45:56
Speaker 3: Because for example, like a tapeworm lives in my gut, eat some of my food, I get less food. So it's easy to understand from the tapeworms benefit what the impact is on me. I don't know. I'm not a parasitologist, but it seems like maybe an avenue. So what do we know about how these parasites are influencing these fish spoiler alert.

00:46:16
Speaker 1: We don't know at the end of the day, but we think that what might be happening is that the parasite is making it so that the fish doesn't respond with as much of a stress response as it should. So essentially the parasite is like dampening the stress response. And so here's what we think is happening. So there's a part of the brain in fish that is usually associated with the stress response, and when you look at that part of the brain, we see that the typical response to the chemicals in the brain in fish when they're stressed is much lower when the fish has a bunch of parasites in that part of the brain. And so that's got us wondering, like if a predatory bird is in the area, for example, is maybe what's happening is that like uninfected fish would be like.

00:47:05
Speaker 2: Ah predatory bird, I gotta run away.

00:47:07
Speaker 1: But in a fish that has these parasites, are the parasites making the fish be like, eh, no, big deal, probably not gonna choose me. In fact, actually I'm gonna shoot forward really quick.

00:47:16
Speaker 2: Oh look at how cool I am.

00:47:18
Speaker 1: And I should say that we have measured these differences in infected and uninfected fish brains, but we have not tied these differences to behavior or tied these differences to like, you know, fish getting eaten by birds more often. So this is just like preliminary observations and how these brains look different.

00:47:36
Speaker 3: So all that makes sense, except for the part where being less stressed makes them dart more. Because I thought darting was a response to like, oh no, I think I'm gonna get eaten.

00:47:46
Speaker 1: Yeah, but so so it is a response to oh no, I think I'm gonna get eaten, but usually it ends in and so I'm going to hide, right, and so, but here it's like, oh no, I'm gonna get oh wait, oh wait, what was I running from? And there's another part of the brain that's associated with locomotion, and you tend to find a high density of the parasites there. And so I mentioned that you know, the parasites are sort of like a carpet on the brain, but they're like a carpet, but they also tend to like be a little bit more dense in two parts of the brain, and one of those parts deals with stress, and one of those parts deals with locomotion. And so you know, again these are just observations. We haven't linked it to behavior yet, but it could be that, like, you know, there's some stimulation of the locomotion part of the brain to get those fish moving, to get the darts going. And then the part where usually they're like and now go run and hide is being turned off. So they're moving around, but they're not hiding.

00:48:42
Speaker 3: Maybe so these fish are just like more chill, they sound like of anything. They might be happier they could be.

00:48:48
Speaker 1: And so actually part of how we get funding for this system is we say, you know, look, maybe what the parasite is doing is it's secreting some chemical that is suppressed saying stress. Maybe there's like a treatment for anxiety or something that we could find by something that's being secreted by this parasite. There could be a novel compound that we could discover with this parasite.

00:49:11
Speaker 3: Wasn't ozembic discovered when they were studying like lizard venom or something crazy.

00:49:15
Speaker 2: You never know, I think.

00:49:17
Speaker 1: HeLa HeLa monster or venom or something like that. Yeah, you never know where the next treatment's going to be found.

00:49:23
Speaker 3: Your science could change, Hollywood.

00:49:26
Speaker 1: That's right, that's right. One of the cool things about studying fish is that if you stick them in a beaker of water, the steroid hormones, which are things like cortisol, which is associated with your stress response, and things like testosterone and estrogen and stuff like that, they leak across the fish's gills and into the water and they'll reach an equilibrium, so the concentration in the water is equal to the concentration in the blood. And you have to do some validating work, but you can repeatedly make measurements of hormones in fish without needing to draw any blood by just putting them in beakers of water. And so I collected cortisol levels from fish repeatedly, and these fish had different levels of parasites on their brain, and we found that the density of parasites on their brain does impact how much cordisol they release, But it wasn't in a like nice, predictable way. And this is when I decided I didn't want to work on hormones and neurotransmitters.

00:50:22
Speaker 2: Anymore because I had a prediction.

00:50:25
Speaker 1: And I talked to the experts and I was like, there was supposed to be a straight line up, but instead it made au and they were like, yeah, this stuff never works out the way we think it's gonna and I was like, I'm done.

00:50:35
Speaker 2: I'm done. I'm not doing this anymore.

00:50:38
Speaker 3: I've had enough snail gonads. I'm moving on right.

00:50:41
Speaker 2: I don't even like pipettes, and so I was that was it for me.

00:50:45
Speaker 3: But that is one of my fears about biology is that you're doomed to working in complex systems. You can never really use reductionism and simplify things because everything you're doing is most interesting in a complex system, which means it might be forever before you actually untangle stuff. It's incredible to me that we've made any progress in biology at all.

00:51:09
Speaker 1: I have to admit a lot of my friends are working on these kinds of problems, and I am so glad they are, because this is how we get to the bottom of things, like, you know, why are parasites becoming resistant to our drugs, and so like super important questions. I found it really frustrating, and I was like, I can't. I don't think I can keep doing this.

00:51:30
Speaker 3: I think something that's not widely enough appreciated about how people end up in the science field. To end up in is that you have to be excited about the big questions of the field, but also you have to find the day to day work fun. Yeah, and so many fields are fascinating the questions they ask, but then the day to day work is very different. You know, it's like working in a lab pipetting or you know, making a laser operate well or whatever. And you have to be interested in both sides of it if you're going to spend your life doing it, because it's not every day that you're answering the big questions. Mostly it's the day to day work, and so you've got to find that niche where the craft is also fun.

00:52:08
Speaker 1: I can't tell you how many days I wanted to hurl that pipette across the lab.

00:52:13
Speaker 2: I do not enjoy pipetting. I have friends who get in the flow, and I do not. I have no flow.

00:52:19
Speaker 3: Well, the wonderful thing about humanity is that we're all into different stuff. And so yeah, some of us trapes through rainforests and get their socks wet while studying spiders, and other people look up at the sky and wonder about all of that, and some people like to pipet. So because of that, we have a glorious diversity in all of the science stories that we extract from the universe. We do.

00:52:38
Speaker 1: And if I may so, you know, I hope that work continues in the system, because this could be the routes to another treatment for anxiety.

00:52:45
Speaker 2: Maybe this will be helping me a decade down the road, we can hope.

00:52:49
Speaker 1: But also there are other killy fish species and a bunch of estuaries in North America, And there are other Uplorcus species and a bunch of estuaries in North America. So it might be that similar interactions like this are playing out and a bunch of our super productive ecosystems, so this parasite might be impacting, you know, the flow of energy from aquatic systems to terrestrial systems all throughout North America. And we don't understand this very well. And a lot of people are interested in migratory birds. I think fish are cooler than birds. I'm going to die on that hill. But you know, bird people, you guys are cool too, and so this kind of stuff matters.

00:53:26
Speaker 3: And that's some of the excitement of science that you never know around which corner or under which snail gonad is going to be some amazing discovery that really changes the world. And it takes somebody like pushing on a question that seems maybe minor and in a corner, but that reveals a thread that you can use to unravel our understanding of something much broader. And when you're doing science, you never know, like, is today the day I'm going to learn something mind blowing? Because there have been days like that in the history of science. We just all hope that one of them is going to happen to us.

00:53:57
Speaker 2: That's right, Well, thanks for listening to me ramble. Hell everybody, I love this parasite and I.

00:54:02
Speaker 3: Thought that was interesting, even without any parasites controlling my brain and telling me what defined interesting.

00:54:08
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