The Quiet History of Witches | From the First Trials to Salem | Boring History For Sleep

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Hey my sleepy friends, I'm sure 
today has been quite long, so 

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why don't we get snuggled up? 
Let me tell you a story about 

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the quiet history of witches. 
From the first trials to Salem 

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to travelling through centuries 
of shadows and fire light into 

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the lives of people accused of 
impossible things. 

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This is a story without monsters
only humans fear, and the 

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strange ways communities 
convince themselves that danger 

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lives next door. 
If you're new here, joining the 

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community is super quick and 
easy. 

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Just tap, subscribe and like the
video and let me know where in 

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the world you're watching from 
and what time it is for you. 

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It's a small click that makes a 
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grow. 
Now find your favorite spot and 

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let's begin. 
Imagine standing in a medieval 

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village at twilight when the sun
has just dipped below the 

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horizon and the world exists in 
that peculiar in between light 

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where shapes become uncertain. 
The forge fire glows orange in 

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the blacksmith shop, smoke rises
from thatched roofs, and 

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somewhere a dog barks at 
something you cannot see. 

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This is the world where the idea
of witches took root, not as a 

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sudden invention, but as a slow 
accumulation of older beliefs 

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mixing with newer fears, like 
sediment settling at the bottom 

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of a river over centuries. 
Long before anyone spoke of 

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witches in the way we understand
them now, people believed in 

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magic as naturally as they 
believed in weather. 

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If you lived in ancient Rome or 
Greece, you might visit a local 

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wise woman for a love charm or 
pay someone to curse your 

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business rival. 
Magic was simply another tool, 

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morally neutral, available to 
anyone willing to learn the 

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formulas and make the proper 
offerings to the right gods. 

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But these were small magics, 
personal and local. 

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The witch hunts that would 
eventually sweep across Europe 

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and leap the Atlantic to America
required something more, a 

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complete reorganization of how 
people understood evil itself. 

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Christianity brought with it a 
new cosmology, the universe 

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divided between absolute good 
and absolute evil, with very 

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little room for the comfortable 
grey areas where ancient magic 

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had lived. 
The old gods and spirits who had

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been neutral or even helpful 
became, in Christian theology, 

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demons pretending to be 
something else. 

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That helpful household spirit 
your grandmother left bread for?

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Now it was a devil in disguise 
trying to steal your soul. 

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This transformation happened 
slowly over centuries. 

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A monk working by candlelight in
a 6th century scriptorium had 

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different concerns than a 
village priest in the 12th 

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century, who in turn understood 
the world differently than the 

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inquisitors of the 15th century.
Each generation added layers to 

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the concept, like a Pearl 
forming around a grain of sand. 

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By the medieval period, educated
theologians had begun 

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constructing elaborate theories 
about how demons operated in the

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world. 
They wrote thick books debating 

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whether demons could physically 
transport people through the 

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air, whether they could take 
physical form, and whether 

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contracts with the devil needed 
to be written in blood or if a 

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verbal agreement sufficed. 
These debates were conducted 

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with the same seriousness that 
modern lawyers bring to contract

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law, because to these thinkers, 
demonic interaction was 

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absolutely real. 
But here's something 

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interesting. 
For most of the Middle Ages, 

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while scholars were writing 
these elaborate theories, actual

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accusations of witchcraft were 
relatively rare. 

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The Church was actually more 
likely to prosecute people for 

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claiming that witches existed 
and could harm others. 

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The official position, recorded 
in a document called the Canon 

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Episcopy, was that belief in 
witches flying through the night

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sky was foolish superstition. 
If you claimed your neighbor 

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could transform into an animal 
and curse your cow, you might be

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the one in trouble for believing
such nonsense. 

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This creates a curious paradox. 
The intellectual framework for 

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witch hunting was being 
constructed while the 

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authorities simultaneously 
denied that such things were 

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possible. 
It's like building a detailed 

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blueprint for a machine while 
insisting the machine could 

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never actually work. 
The village experience was 

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different from the scholarly one
in small communities where 

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everyone knew everyone else's 
business, where your survival 

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might depend on your neighbors 
helping with the harvest or 

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lending you seed grain during a 
bad year, There was always a 

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need to explain misfortune. 
Why did your child die when your

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neighbors thrived? 
Why did your crops fail while 

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hers flourished? 
Why did you feel a sudden pain 

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in your leg after arguing with 
that old woman at the well? 

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Every community had people on 
its margins. 

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The elderly widow with no 
family, the strange hermit 

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living at the forest edge, the 
woman whose medicinal knowledge 

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seemed a little too effective 
and the midwife who knew too 

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much about birth and death. 
These people were useful. 

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You needed healers, after all, 
and someone had to help both 

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babies and prepare the dead. 
But usefulness and suspicion 

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have always been uneasy 
neighbors. 

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The word witch itself comes from
the old English Wicks, which 

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simply meant someone who 
practiced magic or divination. 

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But language is a living thing, 
and as centuries past, the word 

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accumulated darker meanings, 
gathering fear the way wool 

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gathers burrs. 
In many villages there were what

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we might call cunning folk 
people, usually women, but 

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sometimes men. 
Who knew herbal remedies could 

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help you find lost objects, 
might tell your fortune or 

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provided charms to protect your 
livestock. 

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They operated in a strange 
social space, valued but feared,

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necessary but suspicious. 
You might visit one when your 

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child has a fever, but you 
wouldn't necessarily want to sit

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next to them in church. 
These cunning folk had 

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accumulated practical knowledge 
passed down through generations.

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They knew which plants eased 
pain, which herbs brought down 

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fever, which fungi were poison, 
and which were medicine. 

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In a world without doctors, 
without pharmacies, without any 

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formal medical care, this 
knowledge was essential. 

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But knowledge that seems magical
when you don't understand it can

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easily become frightening when 
circumstances turn dark. 

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The medieval world was also one 
of intimate familiarity with 

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death and suffering. 
Childhood diseases that we now 

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prevent with simple vaccines 
killed regularly. 

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Infections from minor injuries 
could prove fatal. 

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Childbirth was dangerous for 
both mother and baby. 

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Crops failed. 
Livestock died. 

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And because the actual causes of
these tragedies were invisible 

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bacteria, viruses, genetic 
conditions, environmental 

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factors, people needed 
explanations that made sense 

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within their worldview. 
If your neighbor insulted you on

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Tuesday and your best cow died 
on Wednesday, the connection 

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seemed obvious. 
Not because you were stupid or 

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superstitious, but because you 
lived in a world where cause and

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effect weren't clearly 
understood, where coincidence 

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and correlation were 
indistinguishable, and where 

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everyone around you believed 
that malevolent will could 

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produce tangible harm. 
Picture Europe in the 14th and 

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15th centuries, and you're 
looking at a world being 

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fundamentally remade by forces 
that seemed to the people living

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through them like the End Times 
themselves. 

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The Black Death arrived in 1347 
and killed somewhere between a 

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third and half of Europe's 
entire population over the next 

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few years. 
Imagine watching half the people

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in your town die in a matter of 
months, their bodies covered in 

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black swellings, coughing blood,
delirious with fever. 

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Imagine the smell of mass 
graves, the silence where 

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children's voices used to be, 
and the empty houses with doors 

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standing open because no one was
left to close them. 

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Survivors emerged into a 
transformed world. 

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Labour was suddenly scarce and 
valuable. 

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The old social order, where 
peasants knew their place and 

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noblemen knew theirs, began to 
crack. 

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The church, which had promised 
protection and salvation, had 

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proved unable to stop the dying.
Everyone wanted explanations, 

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and disease caused by bacteria 
spread by fleas on rats wasn't 

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available as an answer. 
Into this traumatized, 

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destabilized world came a rising
anxiety about heresy and 

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spiritual corruption. 
The Church was fighting battles 

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on multiple fronts against 
Muslim expansion in the east, 

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against internal reform 
movements that questioned papal 

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authority, and against the 
lingering presence of non 

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Christian traditions in rural 
areas that had been nominally 

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converted centuries earlier but 
still practiced old rituals 

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under a thin veneer of 
Christianity. 

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The Spanish Reconquista had 
created anxiety about religious 

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and cultural purity. 
The Cathars have been brutally 

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suppressed. 
The Waldensians were being 

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hunted. 
Jewish communities faced 

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increasing persecution. 
Europe was becoming obsessed 

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with finding and eliminating 
religious contamination, like 

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someone with severe anxiety 
constantly checking for dirt 

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that might not actually be 
there. 

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The printing press arrived in 
the mid 15th century and 

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suddenly ideas could spread 
faster than ever before. 

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This wasn't just good news. 
It also meant that fears, 

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accusations and theories about 
evil could circulate and 

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reinforce themselves across vast
distances. 

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A wild accusation in one region 
could be printed, distributed, 

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and inspire similar accusations 
hundreds of miles away. 

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In 1484, Pope Innocent 8 issued 
A papal bull acknowledging the 

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existence of witches and 
authorizing inquisitors to 

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prosecute them. 
This was a significant shift 

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from earlier church positions. 
The official stance had moved 

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from believing in witches is 
superstitious nonsense to 

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witches are real and must be 
destroyed. 2 Dominican 

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Inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and 
Jacob Springer took this 

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authorization and ran with it. 
In 1487, they published the 

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Malleus Maleficarum, The Hammer 
of Witches, which would become 

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the most influential guide to 
witch hunting ever written. 

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It was essentially an 
instruction manual for 

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identifying, interrogating, and 
prosecuting witches, complete 

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with theological justification 
and practical advice. 

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The Malleus is a deeply strange 
document. 

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If you read it today, it 
contains elaborate arguments 

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about why women are more 
susceptible to demonic 

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corruption than men. 
Spoiler The authors believed 

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women were intellectually and 
morally weaker. 

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It describes in detail how to 
conduct interrogations and 

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torture sessions. 
It explains what questions to 

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ask, how to interpret answers, 
and why denials of guilt should 

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be treated as confirmations of 
guilt. 

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One particularly dark innovation
in the Malleus was its approach 

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to evidence. 
Traditional legal systems 

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required clear proof of harm, 
but witch hunters argued that 

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witchcraft was a secret crime 
that left no visible evidence. 

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Therefore, rumour, reputation 
and spectral evidence. 

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Claims that the accused person's
spirit or demon had appeared to 

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the accuser could be acceptable 
in court. 

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This essentially meant that 
accusations themselves became 

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evidence, creating a system 
where defending yourself was 

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nearly impossible. 
The book was reprinted dozens of

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times and became standard 
reading for judges and 

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inquisitors across Europe. 
It's darkly ironic that one of 

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the first best sellers created 
by printing press technology was

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an instruction manual for 
persecution. 

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But we should be careful not to 
imagine this as solely a top 

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down phenomenon. 
With authorities forcing witch 

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trials on reluctant populations.
The reality was more complex and

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more disturbing. 
Communities often initiated 

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accusations themselves, bringing
suspects to authorities and 

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demanding action. 
The witch hunts worked because 

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they tapped into existing 
tensions, fears and conflicts 

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within communities. 
Economic anxiety played a role 

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as medieval economies began 
transforming into early 

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capitalism. 
Traditional social safety Nets 

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were fraying. 
The woman begging at your door, 

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whom you turned away because you
had little yourself, might later

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be accused of cursing you out of
revenge. 

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Guilt, fear, and self 
justification could blend into 

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accusations that protected you 
from having to examine your own 

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moral choices. 
Religious anxiety also 

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intensified during the 
Reformation. 

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As Christianity fractured into 
competing versions of truth, 

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everyone became more concerned 
about spiritual contamination. 

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Catholics accused Protestants of
being in league with the devil. 

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Protestants returned the favour.
Communities that had lived with 

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religious ambiguity for 
centuries suddenly demanded 

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clarity and purity, and anyone 
who didn't fit the approved 

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model became suspect. 
The Little Ice Age, a period of 

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cooling temperatures that began 
in the 14th century and lasted 

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into the 19th, contributed to 
agricultural failures, famines 

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and social stress. 
When your crops failed year 

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after year, when summer never 
quite arrived and when winter 

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00:12:09,160 --> 00:12:12,120
seemed endless, it was easy to 
believe that someone had cursed 

235
00:12:12,120 --> 00:12:14,560
the weather itself. 
Climate change has always 

236
00:12:14,560 --> 00:12:17,920
created scapegoats. 
The earliest organized witch 

237
00:12:17,920 --> 00:12:20,920
trials began in the Alps, in the
border regions between 

238
00:12:20,920 --> 00:12:24,200
Switzerland, France and Italy in
the early 15th century. 

239
00:12:24,520 --> 00:12:27,520
These mountainous areas, where 
small communities lived in 

240
00:12:27,520 --> 00:12:30,640
relative isolation, became 
laboratories for developing 

241
00:12:30,640 --> 00:12:33,040
witch hunting practices that 
would later spread across 

242
00:12:33,040 --> 00:12:35,440
Europe. 
The trials in Valet, 

243
00:12:35,440 --> 00:12:40,200
Switzerland, in the 1420s and 
1430s established patterns that 

244
00:12:40,200 --> 00:12:43,880
would be repeated for centuries.
Accusations typically started 

245
00:12:43,880 --> 00:12:47,400
with someone explaining their 
misfortune, illness, death or 

246
00:12:47,400 --> 00:12:50,520
crop failure by pointing to a 
recent interaction with a 

247
00:12:50,520 --> 00:12:53,320
suspect neighbor. 
Under interrogation, which often

248
00:12:53,320 --> 00:12:56,160
included torture, the accused 
might confess to meeting with 

249
00:12:56,160 --> 00:12:59,480
the devil, flying through the 
night sky to secret gatherings, 

250
00:12:59,760 --> 00:13:02,040
or causing harm through 
supernatural means. 

251
00:13:02,560 --> 00:13:05,840
Here's where these early trials 
developed something particularly

252
00:13:05,840 --> 00:13:08,240
insidious. 
Once you confess to being a 

253
00:13:08,240 --> 00:13:11,280
witch, you were expected to name
other witches who had attended 

254
00:13:11,280 --> 00:13:14,600
these secret meetings. 
This created a cascade effect 

255
00:13:14,960 --> 00:13:17,480
where one accusation could bloom
into dozens. 

256
00:13:18,080 --> 00:13:20,640
Torture made people say whatever
they thought might stop the 

257
00:13:20,640 --> 00:13:24,800
pain, including implicating 
friends, neighbors, and family 

258
00:13:24,800 --> 00:13:26,840
members. 
It was a system that fed on 

259
00:13:26,840 --> 00:13:30,680
itself, growing larger with each
new name extracted from a person

260
00:13:30,680 --> 00:13:32,960
in agony. 
The accused in these early 

261
00:13:32,960 --> 00:13:36,520
trials were predominantly older 
women, often widows, usually 

262
00:13:36,520 --> 00:13:39,960
poor, but not always. 
Sometimes the accusations reach 

263
00:13:39,960 --> 00:13:42,880
people with property, with 
status, and with connections. 

264
00:13:43,200 --> 00:13:47,320
This created a strange dynamic. 
Witch hunting could destabilize 

265
00:13:47,320 --> 00:13:50,400
social hierarchies, allowing the
powerless to strike at the 

266
00:13:50,400 --> 00:13:54,000
powerful through accusation. 
But it also reinforced existing 

267
00:13:54,000 --> 00:13:57,520
power structures by primarily 
targeting the most vulnerable. 

268
00:13:58,280 --> 00:14:02,160
Imagine being a woman in your 
60s, widowed, living alone in a 

269
00:14:02,160 --> 00:14:04,000
small cottage at the edge of a 
village. 

270
00:14:04,320 --> 00:14:07,240
You've survived plague, famine, 
and the deaths of most people 

271
00:14:07,240 --> 00:14:09,760
you loved. 
You know herbs and healing 

272
00:14:09,760 --> 00:14:11,960
because you've had to. 
When you walk through the 

273
00:14:11,960 --> 00:14:14,840
village, younger people 
sometimes cross themselves. 

274
00:14:15,160 --> 00:14:17,360
Children dare each other to 
knock on your door. 

275
00:14:18,040 --> 00:14:19,920
One day, a neighbour's child 
falls. 

276
00:14:19,920 --> 00:14:22,880
I'll The neighbor remembers that
you muttered something when she 

277
00:14:22,880 --> 00:14:24,560
refused to sell you eggs last 
week. 

278
00:14:25,000 --> 00:14:27,840
She tells her husband. 
He tells the village elder. 

279
00:14:28,160 --> 00:14:31,040
Someone mentions that another 
child died three years ago after

280
00:14:31,040 --> 00:14:33,200
your shadow supposedly fell 
across their doorway. 

281
00:14:33,520 --> 00:14:37,000
Others remember unexplained 
accidents, mysterious illnesses,

282
00:14:37,000 --> 00:14:39,400
and strange sounds in the night 
Before. 

283
00:14:39,400 --> 00:14:41,040
You quite understand what's 
happening. 

284
00:14:41,320 --> 00:14:43,240
You're being dragged before a 
magistrate. 

285
00:14:43,560 --> 00:14:46,360
People you've known your entire 
life testify against you. 

286
00:14:46,680 --> 00:14:49,400
Their face is a mixture of fear 
and what looks almost like 

287
00:14:49,400 --> 00:14:52,320
relief. 
They're afraid of you, yes, but 

288
00:14:52,320 --> 00:14:55,240
perhaps also afraid of their own
doubts, their own uncharitable 

289
00:14:55,240 --> 00:14:58,280
thoughts, and their own failures
to embody Christian love. 

290
00:14:58,600 --> 00:15:01,800
Projecting evil onto you makes 
their own compromises more 

291
00:15:01,800 --> 00:15:04,800
bearable. 
The interrogation begins gently.

292
00:15:05,280 --> 00:15:08,720
You're asked simple questions. 
Do you attend church regularly? 

293
00:15:09,160 --> 00:15:11,840
Do you know the Lord's Prayer? 
Have you ever been angry with 

294
00:15:11,840 --> 00:15:14,120
your neighbors? 
Have you ever wished harm on 

295
00:15:14,120 --> 00:15:16,120
anyone? 
These seem like reasonable 

296
00:15:16,120 --> 00:15:19,120
questions, until you realize 
that everyone has been angry. 

297
00:15:19,440 --> 00:15:23,120
Everyone has wished harm, and 
admitting these universal human 

298
00:15:23,120 --> 00:15:25,960
feelings becomes evidence of 
demonic inclination. 

299
00:15:26,280 --> 00:15:30,000
You try to defend yourself, but 
your very defensiveness is taken

300
00:15:30,000 --> 00:15:32,920
as proof of guilt. 
Wouldn't an innocent person 

301
00:15:32,920 --> 00:15:35,160
accept God's judgement without 
protest? 

302
00:15:35,640 --> 00:15:38,480
If you continue to protest your 
innocence, torture might be 

303
00:15:38,480 --> 00:15:42,320
applied not out of cruelty, the 
authorities would insist, but 

304
00:15:42,320 --> 00:15:45,320
out of necessity. 
Your body is already corrupted 

305
00:15:45,320 --> 00:15:48,680
by the devil, they believe, so. 
Pain applied to it is medicinal,

306
00:15:48,920 --> 00:15:51,440
designed to force out the truth 
that the devil has hidden. 

307
00:15:51,840 --> 00:15:53,760
The logic is circular and 
perfect. 

308
00:15:54,160 --> 00:15:57,160
Resistance proves guilt, 
confession proves guilt. 

309
00:15:57,440 --> 00:16:00,200
And there's no path that leads 
to innocence once the process 

310
00:16:00,240 --> 00:16:04,760
begins. 
In Tria, Germany, between 1581 

311
00:16:04,760 --> 00:16:10,560
and 1593, witch trials resulted 
in the execution of around 368 

312
00:16:10,800 --> 00:16:12,720
people. 
The Prince Archbishop who 

313
00:16:12,720 --> 00:16:15,320
authorized these trials was 
himself later accused of being 

314
00:16:15,320 --> 00:16:18,440
too lenient on witches. 
This is the Alice in Wonderland 

315
00:16:18,440 --> 00:16:21,880
logic of witch hunting. 
Moderation becomes suspicious, 

316
00:16:22,280 --> 00:16:25,840
mercy becomes evidence of 
conspiracy, and the only way to 

317
00:16:25,840 --> 00:16:29,800
prove you're not sympathetic to 
witches is to find and burn more

318
00:16:29,800 --> 00:16:33,160
of them. 
In Bamberg, Germany, between 

319
00:16:33,160 --> 00:16:37,960
Distosus 1626 and 1631, perhaps 
600 people were executed as 

320
00:16:37,960 --> 00:16:39,920
witches. 
The witch hunting became so 

321
00:16:39,920 --> 00:16:42,720
extensive that special buildings
were constructed to handle the 

322
00:16:42,720 --> 00:16:44,960
volume of interrogations and 
executions. 

323
00:16:45,320 --> 00:16:48,480
The Druden House Witch house in 
Bamberg was essentially A 

324
00:16:48,480 --> 00:16:51,760
torture factory, processing 
accusations with bureaucratic 

325
00:16:51,760 --> 00:16:54,200
efficiency. 
But not everywhere succumbed to 

326
00:16:54,200 --> 00:16:57,040
this panic. 
Some regions remained relatively

327
00:16:57,040 --> 00:17:00,480
untouched by witch trials. 
Some magistrates simply refused 

328
00:17:00,480 --> 00:17:03,120
to prosecute. 
Some communities resisted the 

329
00:17:03,120 --> 00:17:05,400
pressure to identify witches 
among their neighbors. 

330
00:17:05,760 --> 00:17:07,800
This variability is important to
remember. 

331
00:17:08,319 --> 00:17:10,560
Witch hunting wasn't an 
inevitable feature of the 

332
00:17:10,560 --> 00:17:13,240
period, but a specific 
phenomenon that required 

333
00:17:13,240 --> 00:17:15,000
particular conditions to 
flourish. 

334
00:17:15,800 --> 00:17:18,839
Where witch hunting took hold, 
it often followed patterns of 

335
00:17:18,839 --> 00:17:23,280
social stress, a bad harvest, an
outbreak of disease, a military 

336
00:17:23,280 --> 00:17:27,079
threat, economic disruption. 
These created anxiety that 

337
00:17:27,079 --> 00:17:30,240
sought an outlet in accusation. 
Communities that maintained 

338
00:17:30,240 --> 00:17:33,720
stronger social bonds, better 
conflict resolution mechanisms 

339
00:17:34,080 --> 00:17:36,560
or more sceptical authorities 
often avoided the worst 

340
00:17:36,560 --> 00:17:39,680
excesses. 
The executions themselves 

341
00:17:39,680 --> 00:17:41,920
varied. 
In some regions, convicted 

342
00:17:41,920 --> 00:17:44,520
witches were strangled before 
being burned, which was 

343
00:17:44,520 --> 00:17:47,080
considered merciful. 
In others, they were burned 

344
00:17:47,080 --> 00:17:49,440
alive. 
Some were hanged, some were 

345
00:17:49,440 --> 00:17:52,080
drowned. 
The methods reflected local 

346
00:17:52,080 --> 00:17:54,360
custom and the severity of the 
supposed crime. 

347
00:17:54,680 --> 00:17:57,520
Those who confessed and repented
might receive quicker deaths. 

348
00:17:57,960 --> 00:18:00,440
Those who maintained their 
innocence to the end were often 

349
00:18:00,440 --> 00:18:02,400
subjected to the harshest 
punishments. 

350
00:18:03,440 --> 00:18:06,240
What's haunting about reading 
trial records is how ordinary 

351
00:18:06,240 --> 00:18:09,160
everything seems. 
The scribe carefully records the

352
00:18:09,160 --> 00:18:11,240
date, the accused's name, and 
the charges. 

353
00:18:11,520 --> 00:18:14,440
Witnesses testify in matter of 
fact tones about supernatural 

354
00:18:14,440 --> 00:18:17,080
events. 
Yes, the accused appeared in my 

355
00:18:17,080 --> 00:18:19,920
bedroom as a spirit. 
Yes, I saw her flying. 

356
00:18:20,240 --> 00:18:22,880
Yes, she caused my cow's milk to
dry up. 

357
00:18:23,200 --> 00:18:25,920
The supernatural was treated as 
simply another category of 

358
00:18:25,920 --> 00:18:28,880
evidence, like eyewitness 
testimony in a theft case. 

359
00:18:29,440 --> 00:18:32,200
You might think that the 
Renaissance, with its revival of

360
00:18:32,200 --> 00:18:36,080
classical learning, its emphasis
on humanism, and its scientific 

361
00:18:36,080 --> 00:18:38,440
curiosity, would have ended 
witch hunting. 

362
00:18:38,760 --> 00:18:41,960
Instead, the 16th and 17th 
centuries saw witch trials 

363
00:18:41,960 --> 00:18:44,880
intensify and spread. 
The same intellectual ferment 

364
00:18:44,880 --> 00:18:48,040
that produced great art and 
early science also produced 

365
00:18:48,040 --> 00:18:51,000
increasingly elaborate theories 
about demonic intervention. 

366
00:18:51,880 --> 00:18:55,240
This period saw some of the most
educated minds in Europe writing

367
00:18:55,240 --> 00:18:58,960
extensively about witchcraft. 
King James Sicus of Scotland, 

368
00:18:59,160 --> 00:19:02,680
later James the Thurn of 
England, wrote Demonology, A 

369
00:19:02,680 --> 00:19:05,600
philosophical exploration of 
witchcraft that treated demonic 

370
00:19:05,600 --> 00:19:09,480
intervention as a subject worthy
of royal scholarly attention. 

371
00:19:09,760 --> 00:19:12,360
Jean Baudin, one of France's 
great legal theorists and 

372
00:19:12,360 --> 00:19:15,880
political philosophers, wrote De
la de Mon Amani de Saucie, 

373
00:19:16,440 --> 00:19:18,640
arguing that witchcraft 
prosecutions should be more 

374
00:19:18,640 --> 00:19:21,880
severe, and that judicial mercy 
toward accused witches was 

375
00:19:21,880 --> 00:19:26,760
itself a form of heresy. 
These weren't ignorant peasants 

376
00:19:26,760 --> 00:19:29,680
spreading superstition. 
These were the intellectual 

377
00:19:29,680 --> 00:19:32,920
elite of their age, applying the
full force of their learning to 

378
00:19:32,920 --> 00:19:35,640
the question of how demons 
operated in the world. 

379
00:19:35,920 --> 00:19:38,560
It's a reminder that 
intelligence and education don't

380
00:19:38,560 --> 00:19:41,520
automatically protect against 
systematic errors in thinking, 

381
00:19:41,920 --> 00:19:44,480
especially when those errors are
embedded in your culture's 

382
00:19:44,480 --> 00:19:46,520
fundamental assumptions about 
reality. 

383
00:19:47,520 --> 00:19:50,840
The Renaissance also saw the 
witch hunts spread northward 

384
00:19:50,840 --> 00:19:54,040
into Scandinavia and eastward 
into Poland and Russia. 

385
00:19:54,400 --> 00:19:56,760
Each region adapted witch 
hunting to its own cultural 

386
00:19:56,760 --> 00:19:59,960
context. 
In Scandinavia, accusations 

387
00:19:59,960 --> 00:20:02,640
often involved harmful magic 
against ships and sailors, 

388
00:20:03,040 --> 00:20:05,800
unsurprising in seafaring 
cultures where storms at sea 

389
00:20:05,800 --> 00:20:07,520
could mean death and financial 
ruin. 

390
00:20:07,840 --> 00:20:10,360
In Eastern Europe, beliefs in 
vampires and werewolves 

391
00:20:10,360 --> 00:20:13,800
sometimes merge with witchcraft 
accusations, creating local 

392
00:20:13,800 --> 00:20:16,840
variations on the theme of 
malevolent supernatural power. 

393
00:20:17,960 --> 00:20:20,360
England developed its own 
distinctive approach to witch 

394
00:20:20,360 --> 00:20:22,760
hunting. 
English law didn't allow torture

395
00:20:22,760 --> 00:20:25,760
except in cases of treason. 
Which meant the confessions had 

396
00:20:25,760 --> 00:20:29,000
to be obtained through other 
means, lengthy interrogations, 

397
00:20:29,240 --> 00:20:33,080
sleep deprivation, isolation and
psychological pressure. 

398
00:20:33,440 --> 00:20:36,200
The accusations in England also 
tended to focus more on 

399
00:20:36,200 --> 00:20:40,400
maleficium, actual harmful 
magic, rather than the elaborate

400
00:20:40,400 --> 00:20:43,960
Sabbaths and demon worship that 
dominated continental trials. 

401
00:20:45,520 --> 00:20:48,160
The most famous English witch 
hunter was Matthew Hopkins, who 

402
00:20:48,160 --> 00:20:51,240
operated during the English 
Civil War in the 1640s. 

403
00:20:51,560 --> 00:20:54,600
He called himself the Witch 
Finder General, though no one 

404
00:20:54,600 --> 00:20:57,480
had actually appointed him to 
any such position, and travelled

405
00:20:57,480 --> 00:20:59,880
through E Anglia, finding 
witches with disturbing 

406
00:20:59,880 --> 00:21:02,120
efficiency. 
His methods were technically 

407
00:21:02,120 --> 00:21:06,520
legal, no torture officially, 
but involved tactics like forced

408
00:21:06,520 --> 00:21:09,760
walking, keeping suspects awake 
and moving for days until they 

409
00:21:09,760 --> 00:21:13,160
became delirious, pricking, 
searching for spots on the body 

410
00:21:13,160 --> 00:21:16,640
that didn't bleed or feel pain. 
Supposedly, marks made by the 

411
00:21:16,640 --> 00:21:20,200
devil and the swimming test, 
binding suspects and throwing 

412
00:21:20,200 --> 00:21:22,680
them in water to see if they 
floated, which would prove 

413
00:21:22,680 --> 00:21:26,280
guilt, or sank, which would 
prove innocence but might also 

414
00:21:26,280 --> 00:21:30,320
result in drowning. 
Hopkins operated for only about 

415
00:21:30,320 --> 00:21:33,320
two years, but in that time was 
responsible for perhaps 300 

416
00:21:33,320 --> 00:21:35,800
executions. 
What's particularly notable 

417
00:21:35,800 --> 00:21:38,640
about his career is how it 
illustrates the entrepreneurial 

418
00:21:38,640 --> 00:21:42,560
aspect of witch hunting. 
Hopkins charged fees to towns 

419
00:21:42,560 --> 00:21:45,600
for his services, creating a 
financial incentive to find 

420
00:21:45,600 --> 00:21:48,080
witches. 
This economic dimension of witch

421
00:21:48,080 --> 00:21:51,800
hunting is often overlooked. 
Fear was genuine, but it also 

422
00:21:51,800 --> 00:21:55,160
became a business. 
Meanwhile, in Scotland, witch 

423
00:21:55,160 --> 00:21:57,280
trials took on particular 
intensity. 

424
00:21:57,520 --> 00:22:00,840
Scottish law allowed torture, 
and Scottish Presbyterianism's 

425
00:22:00,840 --> 00:22:03,800
emphasis on rooting out sin 
created an environment where 

426
00:22:03,800 --> 00:22:09,200
witch hunting flourished. 
Between 1563 and 1736, somewhere

427
00:22:09,200 --> 00:22:13,880
between 2504 thousand people 
were executed as witches in 

428
00:22:13,880 --> 00:22:17,240
Scotland, an extraordinarily 
high number for a relatively 

429
00:22:17,240 --> 00:22:20,600
small population. 
The North Berwick Witch Trials 

430
00:22:20,600 --> 00:22:24,800
of 15/19/91, involving 
accusations that a coven of 

431
00:22:25,120 --> 00:22:28,240
witches had tried to murder King
James the 6th by raising storms 

432
00:22:28,240 --> 00:22:31,120
at sea, show how witch trials 
could become entangled with 

433
00:22:31,120 --> 00:22:33,400
politics. 
The accused included both 

434
00:22:33,400 --> 00:22:35,280
peasants and members of the 
nobility. 

435
00:22:35,840 --> 00:22:39,200
Confessions extracted under 
torture described elaborate 

436
00:22:39,200 --> 00:22:42,200
rituals and plots that 
conveniently implicated the 

437
00:22:42,200 --> 00:22:45,120
King's political enemies. 
Whether the king genuinely 

438
00:22:45,120 --> 00:22:48,040
believed in the supernatural 
threat or cynically used witch 

439
00:22:48,040 --> 00:22:51,080
accusations to eliminate 
opposition, the result was the 

440
00:22:51,080 --> 00:22:55,440
same executions that reinforced 
royal power while purging 

441
00:22:55,440 --> 00:22:58,760
potential threats. 
But amid all this persecution, 

442
00:22:59,000 --> 00:23:02,600
skeptical voices were emerging. 
Reginald Scott's The Discovery 

443
00:23:02,600 --> 00:23:06,640
of Witchcraft, published in 
1584, systematically argued 

444
00:23:06,640 --> 00:23:09,360
against the reality of 
witchcraft, suggesting that 

445
00:23:09,360 --> 00:23:12,520
supposed witches were either 
victims of delusion, mental 

446
00:23:12,520 --> 00:23:14,600
illness, or malicious 
accusation. 

447
00:23:14,920 --> 00:23:17,560
King James was so offended by 
Scott's book that he ordered 

448
00:23:17,560 --> 00:23:20,520
copies burned. 
But the book survived, and it's 

449
00:23:20,520 --> 00:23:22,960
arguments would eventually 
contribute to the decline of 

450
00:23:22,960 --> 00:23:25,960
witch hunting. 
In the Holy Roman Empire, where 

451
00:23:25,960 --> 00:23:30,880
the 30 Years War 1618 to 1648 
was tearing the region apart 

452
00:23:30,880 --> 00:23:34,680
along religious lines, witch 
hunting reached some of its most

453
00:23:34,680 --> 00:23:38,240
extreme manifestations. 
In Wurtzburg, Prince Bishop 

454
00:23:38,240 --> 00:23:40,800
Philip Adolf von Ehrenberg 
presided over trials that 

455
00:23:40,800 --> 00:23:45,520
executed around 900 people 
between 1626 and 1631. 

456
00:23:45,880 --> 00:23:49,360
The victims included children as
young as seven members of the 

457
00:23:49,360 --> 00:23:52,920
nobility and eventually people 
so clearly innocent by any 

458
00:23:52,920 --> 00:23:56,120
rational standard that the 
trials absurdity became 

459
00:23:56,120 --> 00:23:58,080
undeniable even to 
contemporaries. 

460
00:23:59,440 --> 00:24:02,840
The Wurtzberg trials included 
the creation of detailed 

461
00:24:02,840 --> 00:24:06,280
records, including a chilling 
document listing children aged 4

462
00:24:06,280 --> 00:24:09,200
to 14 who are accused of having 
intercourse with demons. 

463
00:24:09,520 --> 00:24:12,160
Reading such records centuries 
later produces a kind of 

464
00:24:12,160 --> 00:24:14,720
Vertigo. 
These were real children whose 

465
00:24:14,720 --> 00:24:17,640
names were carefully recorded, 
who were tortured and killed 

466
00:24:17,640 --> 00:24:20,000
based on accusations that 
couldn't possibly have been 

467
00:24:20,000 --> 00:24:22,560
true. 
What makes the Renaissance witch

468
00:24:22,560 --> 00:24:25,640
hunts particularly tragic is 
that they occurred during a 

469
00:24:25,640 --> 00:24:28,320
period of genuine intellectual 
advancement. 

470
00:24:28,640 --> 00:24:31,520
The same century that saw the 
publication of the Maleus 

471
00:24:31,520 --> 00:24:35,000
Maleficarum also saw Columbus 
reaching the Americas. 

472
00:24:35,440 --> 00:24:38,360
The same period that saw 
thousands burned as witches also

473
00:24:38,360 --> 00:24:41,720
saw the development of movable 
type printing advances in 

474
00:24:41,720 --> 00:24:43,640
medicine. 
In the beginning of modern 

475
00:24:43,640 --> 00:24:47,000
astronomy, humanity's capacity 
for both brilliance and 

476
00:24:47,000 --> 00:24:49,840
barbarity has never been more 
evident than in these 

477
00:24:49,840 --> 00:24:53,080
contradictions. 
Now we cross the Atlantic to a 

478
00:24:53,080 --> 00:24:57,480
small coastal settlement in 
Massachusetts, where in 1692, 

479
00:24:57,800 --> 00:25:01,280
some of the most famous witch 
trials in history would unfold 

480
00:25:01,280 --> 00:25:03,800
in a community that had fled 
Europe partly to escape 

481
00:25:03,800 --> 00:25:07,120
religious persecution, only to 
recreate it in new and 

482
00:25:07,120 --> 00:25:10,880
devastating forms. 
Salem Village in the late 17th 

483
00:25:10,880 --> 00:25:14,200
century was not a happy place. 
It was a frontier community 

484
00:25:14,200 --> 00:25:17,360
living in the shadow of ongoing 
conflicts with Native Americans.

485
00:25:17,880 --> 00:25:21,000
King William's War had brought 
violence close to home, with 

486
00:25:21,000 --> 00:25:24,360
raids and captivity narratives 
creating constant anxiety. 

487
00:25:24,640 --> 00:25:27,200
The village was also 
experiencing internal tensions, 

488
00:25:27,560 --> 00:25:30,720
disputes over land, arguments 
about the local minister's 

489
00:25:30,720 --> 00:25:33,840
salary, factional conflicts 
between farming families and 

490
00:25:33,840 --> 00:25:36,600
merchant families, and a general
sense that the younger 

491
00:25:36,600 --> 00:25:39,920
generation was abandoning the 
purity of their parents faith. 

492
00:25:41,040 --> 00:25:44,000
Into this tense environment came
a peculiar episode in the 

493
00:25:44,000 --> 00:25:47,760
household of Reverend Samuel 
Paris in January 1692. 

494
00:25:47,880 --> 00:25:51,240
His nine year old daughter Betty
and 11 year old niece Abigail 

495
00:25:51,240 --> 00:25:54,880
began having strange fits, 
screaming, throwing objects, 

496
00:25:55,120 --> 00:25:58,160
contorting their bodies and 
speaking nonsense. 

497
00:25:58,480 --> 00:26:01,640
A local doctor, unable to find 
physical causes, suggested they 

498
00:26:01,640 --> 00:26:04,560
might be bewitched, an 
explanation that made sense 

499
00:26:04,560 --> 00:26:07,800
within the worldview of Puritan 
Massachusetts, where Satan was 

500
00:26:07,800 --> 00:26:10,720
seen as constantly working to 
corrupt God's chosen people. 

501
00:26:11,120 --> 00:26:14,480
The girls, when pressed to name 
their tormentors, eventually 

502
00:26:14,480 --> 00:26:18,080
accused 3 women, Tituba, an 
enslaved woman in the Paris 

503
00:26:18,080 --> 00:26:21,800
household, Sarah Goode, a 
homeless beggar, and Sarah 

504
00:26:21,800 --> 00:26:24,920
Osborne, an elderly woman who 
rarely attended church. 

505
00:26:25,240 --> 00:26:28,480
These first 3 accused fit the 
traditional profile of suspected

506
00:26:28,480 --> 00:26:31,800
witches, marginal, vulnerable, 
and easy to believe. 

507
00:26:31,800 --> 00:26:35,520
I'll of what happened next 
transformed a local episode into

508
00:26:35,520 --> 00:26:39,040
a colony wide crisis. 
Under interrogation, Tituba, 

509
00:26:39,240 --> 00:26:41,840
perhaps hoping to avoid the 
worst punishment, perhaps 

510
00:26:41,840 --> 00:26:44,600
pressured by her enslaver, 
perhaps caught up in the 

511
00:26:44,600 --> 00:26:48,360
theological expectations of her 
interrogators, confessed not 

512
00:26:48,360 --> 00:26:51,000
just to practicing witchcraft, 
but to participating in a 

513
00:26:51,400 --> 00:26:54,400
conspiracy of witches operating 
throughout Massachusetts. 

514
00:26:54,680 --> 00:26:57,960
She described meetings with the 
devil, signing a book, and the 

515
00:26:57,960 --> 00:27:01,160
involvement of other women she 
couldn't quite name or describe.

516
00:27:01,880 --> 00:27:05,360
This confession, instead of 
ending the episode, expanded it.

517
00:27:05,720 --> 00:27:08,720
If Tituba was telling the truth,
then witchcraft was a real and 

518
00:27:08,720 --> 00:27:11,720
immediate threat. 
If there was conspiracy, then 

519
00:27:11,720 --> 00:27:16,520
more witches must be identified.
The girls continued having fits 

520
00:27:16,840 --> 00:27:19,000
and began making additional 
accusations. 

521
00:27:19,280 --> 00:27:21,840
Other young women and girls in 
the community began having 

522
00:27:21,840 --> 00:27:24,920
similar symptoms. 
It was like a stone thrown into 

523
00:27:24,920 --> 00:27:28,360
Stillwater, creating ripples 
that spread outward until they 

524
00:27:28,360 --> 00:27:30,240
reached far beyond Salem 
Village. 

525
00:27:31,120 --> 00:27:35,480
As accusations multiplied, the 
profile of the accused changed. 

526
00:27:35,800 --> 00:27:38,760
The first victims had been 
marginal figures, but soon 

527
00:27:38,760 --> 00:27:41,240
accusations were reaching 
respectable church members, 

528
00:27:41,560 --> 00:27:43,920
property owners, and even a 
former minister. 

529
00:27:44,240 --> 00:27:48,200
Rebecca Nurse, a 71 year old 
woman known for her piety, was 

530
00:27:48,200 --> 00:27:51,680
accused and eventually hanged. 
Despite strong community support

531
00:27:52,000 --> 00:27:55,120
and an initial jury acquittal 
that was overturned when the 

532
00:27:55,120 --> 00:27:56,960
girls had fresh fits in the 
courtroom. 

533
00:27:58,760 --> 00:28:02,240
These Salem trials proceeded in 
a legal environment that would 

534
00:28:02,240 --> 00:28:04,120
seem surreal by modern 
standards. 

535
00:28:04,320 --> 00:28:07,720
Spectral evidence, testimony 
that the accused, spectre or 

536
00:28:07,720 --> 00:28:10,760
spirit had appeared to the 
witness was accepted as valid. 

537
00:28:11,120 --> 00:28:13,440
This created an impossible 
situation. 

538
00:28:13,880 --> 00:28:16,560
How do you defend yourself 
against claims that your spirit 

539
00:28:16,560 --> 00:28:18,160
was doing things you weren't 
aware of? 

540
00:28:18,520 --> 00:28:21,160
The legal system essentially 
prosecuted people for their 

541
00:28:21,160 --> 00:28:24,400
presumed supernatural actions 
rather than anything they had 

542
00:28:24,400 --> 00:28:28,040
actually done. 
Giles Corey, an 80 year old 

543
00:28:28,040 --> 00:28:30,720
farmer who refused to enter a 
plea to the charges against him,

544
00:28:31,040 --> 00:28:34,960
was subjected to pressing heavy 
stones placed on his chest until

545
00:28:34,960 --> 00:28:36,600
he either agreed to plead or 
died. 

546
00:28:36,920 --> 00:28:39,560
According to legend, his only 
words during two days of this 

547
00:28:39,560 --> 00:28:44,040
torture were more weight He died
without pleading, which under 

548
00:28:44,040 --> 00:28:46,640
English law meant his property 
couldn't be confiscated and 

549
00:28:46,640 --> 00:28:49,360
would pass to his heirs. 
His death, meant to compel 

550
00:28:49,360 --> 00:28:52,400
testimony, instead became a 
silent protest against the 

551
00:28:52,400 --> 00:28:56,200
proceedings. 
By the summer of 1692, Salem's 

552
00:28:56,200 --> 00:28:58,440
jails were overflowing with 
accused witches. 

553
00:28:58,720 --> 00:29:02,120
Women who were pregnant were 
spared execution until after 

554
00:29:02,120 --> 00:29:05,520
giving birth, creating the grim 
spectacle of women giving birth 

555
00:29:05,520 --> 00:29:08,520
in chains, knowing they would be
hanged once recovered. 

556
00:29:09,120 --> 00:29:11,760
Children as young as four were 
accused and imprisoned. 

557
00:29:12,000 --> 00:29:15,280
One of the accused, Sarah Goode,
was hanged, while her infant 

558
00:29:15,280 --> 00:29:17,440
daughter, born in prison, died 
shortly after. 

559
00:29:18,160 --> 00:29:21,320
Sarah Goode's final words from 
the gallows, addressed to the 

560
00:29:21,320 --> 00:29:25,360
minister urging her to confess, 
were reported as you're a liar. 

561
00:29:25,680 --> 00:29:28,840
I am no more a witch than you 
are a wizard, and if you take 

562
00:29:28,840 --> 00:29:31,680
away my life, God will give you 
blood to drink. 

563
00:29:32,880 --> 00:29:36,120
By September, however, the 
accusations had reached so far 

564
00:29:36,120 --> 00:29:39,240
up the social hierarchy that 
they were becoming untenable. 

565
00:29:39,560 --> 00:29:42,240
When the girls accused the wife 
of Governor Phipps, when 

566
00:29:42,240 --> 00:29:45,320
respected ministers began 
questioning the proceedings, and

567
00:29:45,320 --> 00:29:48,480
when juries started refusing to 
convict despite spectral 

568
00:29:48,480 --> 00:29:51,760
evidence, the machinery of 
prosecution began to slow. 

569
00:29:52,760 --> 00:29:56,040
The crucial shift came and 
prominent ministers, led by 

570
00:29:56,040 --> 00:29:59,040
increased matter, argued that 
spectral evidence shouldn't be 

571
00:29:59,040 --> 00:30:02,120
allowed in court. 
His statement it were better 

572
00:30:02,120 --> 00:30:05,000
that 10 suspected witches should
escape than that one innocent 

573
00:30:05,000 --> 00:30:08,640
person should be condemned 
represented a dramatic reversal 

574
00:30:08,640 --> 00:30:10,520
of the logic that had driven the
trials. 

575
00:30:10,840 --> 00:30:13,400
Without spectral evidence, most 
cases collapsed. 

576
00:30:14,280 --> 00:30:18,360
By October 1692, Governor Phipps
dissolved the special court that

577
00:30:18,360 --> 00:30:20,120
had been handling witchcraft 
cases. 

578
00:30:20,920 --> 00:30:23,800
Remaining prisoners were 
gradually released, many after 

579
00:30:23,800 --> 00:30:27,080
posting bond. 
Of those who'd been executed, 19

580
00:30:27,080 --> 00:30:30,040
hanged, 1 pressed to death. 
None would receive official 

581
00:30:30,040 --> 00:30:32,440
pardons. 
For centuries, the community, 

582
00:30:32,440 --> 00:30:35,000
having looked into an abyss of 
its own making, collectively 

583
00:30:35,000 --> 00:30:36,920
decided to stop looking and move
on. 

584
00:30:37,520 --> 00:30:40,560
What's particularly haunting 
about Salem is how quickly the 

585
00:30:40,560 --> 00:30:43,360
episode ended once authorities 
decided it should end. 

586
00:30:43,720 --> 00:30:46,600
The same community that had been
gripped by witch hunting fever 

587
00:30:46,600 --> 00:30:48,840
in summer was releasing 
prisoners by fall. 

588
00:30:49,240 --> 00:30:52,080
This rapid reversal suggests 
that the trials had never been 

589
00:30:52,080 --> 00:30:54,080
inevitable. 
The different choices by 

590
00:30:54,080 --> 00:30:57,280
authorities could have prevented
most or all of the deaths. 

591
00:30:57,600 --> 00:31:00,760
The 20 people who died did so 
not because witchcraft belief 

592
00:31:00,760 --> 00:31:04,440
made their deaths unavoidable, 
but because specific individuals

593
00:31:04,440 --> 00:31:08,080
in positions of authority made 
specific decisions to allow the 

594
00:31:08,080 --> 00:31:12,280
prosecutions to proceed. 
The aftermath saw a slow, 

595
00:31:12,600 --> 00:31:14,480
incomplete process of 
acknowledgement. 

596
00:31:14,760 --> 00:31:18,480
Some of the accusers later 
apologized, and Putnam, one of 

597
00:31:18,480 --> 00:31:21,800
the main accusers, eventually 
made a public apology in church,

598
00:31:22,080 --> 00:31:25,600
blaming Satan for deluding her. 
Samuel Sewell, one of the 

599
00:31:25,600 --> 00:31:27,360
judges, publicly confessed 
error. 

600
00:31:27,720 --> 00:31:30,040
But these apologies couldn't 
restore the dead or heal the 

601
00:31:30,040 --> 00:31:33,240
community's wounds. 
Selim spent generations living 

602
00:31:33,240 --> 00:31:34,800
with the knowledge of what it 
had done. 

603
00:31:35,360 --> 00:31:37,920
By the early 18th century, witch
trials were becoming 

604
00:31:37,920 --> 00:31:40,280
increasingly rare across Europe 
and the colonies. 

605
00:31:40,600 --> 00:31:43,400
This decline wasn't the result 
of a single cause, but rather a 

606
00:31:43,400 --> 00:31:46,880
convergence of factors, 
intellectual shifts, legal 

607
00:31:46,880 --> 00:31:50,760
reforms, religious changes, and 
perhaps simply exhaustion with 

608
00:31:50,760 --> 00:31:54,360
decades of persecution. 
The scientific revolution was 

609
00:31:54,360 --> 00:31:57,760
transforming how educated 
Europeans understood causation. 

610
00:31:58,040 --> 00:32:01,480
When you can see microorganisms 
through a microscope, when you 

611
00:32:01,480 --> 00:32:04,240
understand that disease is 
caused by infection rather than 

612
00:32:04,240 --> 00:32:07,480
malevolent will, and when you 
can predict planetary motion 

613
00:32:07,480 --> 00:32:10,840
through mathematics, the 
supernatural explanation for 

614
00:32:10,840 --> 00:32:13,160
misfortune becomes less 
necessary. 

615
00:32:13,480 --> 00:32:16,720
Not everyone accepted these new 
ideas immediately, but they were

616
00:32:16,720 --> 00:32:19,280
available as alternative 
frameworks for understanding the

617
00:32:19,280 --> 00:32:22,640
world. the Enlightenment brought
increased scepticism toward 

618
00:32:22,640 --> 00:32:25,120
traditional authorities and 
supernatural claims. 

619
00:32:25,440 --> 00:32:28,200
Philosophers like Voltaire 
openly mocked witch trials as 

620
00:32:28,200 --> 00:32:31,400
superstitious barbarism. 
This mockery created social 

621
00:32:31,400 --> 00:32:34,120
pressure on authorities who 
continued prosecuting witches. 

622
00:32:34,640 --> 00:32:37,560
They risk being seen as backward
and credulous by the 

623
00:32:37,560 --> 00:32:39,320
intellectual fashions of their 
time. 

624
00:32:40,120 --> 00:32:42,080
Legal reforms also played a 
role. 

625
00:32:42,360 --> 00:32:45,480
New evidentiary standards made 
it harder to obtain convictions 

626
00:32:45,480 --> 00:32:47,680
based solely on confessional 
reputation. 

627
00:32:48,000 --> 00:32:50,800
The use of torture in judicial 
proceedings gradually declined 

628
00:32:50,800 --> 00:32:54,200
across Europe, partly from 
humanitarian concerns but also 

629
00:32:54,200 --> 00:32:57,440
from growing recognition that 
torture produced unreliable 

630
00:32:57,440 --> 00:33:00,360
evidence when authorities 
couldn't extract confessions 

631
00:33:00,360 --> 00:33:04,040
through pain, which prosecutions
became much harder to pursue. 

632
00:33:04,520 --> 00:33:07,680
Religious changes mattered, too.
As Protestant and Catholic 

633
00:33:07,680 --> 00:33:09,920
churches settled into 
coexistence after the 

634
00:33:09,920 --> 00:33:13,800
devastating religious wars of 
the 16th and 17th centuries, the

635
00:33:13,800 --> 00:33:16,640
intense focus on spiritual 
purity that had fuelled witch 

636
00:33:16,640 --> 00:33:19,480
hunting began to ease. 
Communities that had spent 

637
00:33:19,480 --> 00:33:22,160
generations fighting over 
correct doctrine were exhausted 

638
00:33:22,160 --> 00:33:26,440
by conflict and more interested 
in stability than in rooting out

639
00:33:26,440 --> 00:33:29,880
hidden evil. 
Economic development created new

640
00:33:29,880 --> 00:33:33,480
social structures that reduced 
the importance of tight knit 

641
00:33:33,480 --> 00:33:36,360
village communities where witch 
accusations had flourished. 

642
00:33:36,720 --> 00:33:40,240
As people moved to cities, as 
markets expanded, and as 

643
00:33:40,240 --> 00:33:43,080
individuals became less 
dependent on immediate neighbors

644
00:33:43,080 --> 00:33:46,240
for survival, the social 
conditions that had made witch 

645
00:33:46,240 --> 00:33:49,600
accusations useful for managing 
interpersonal conflict began to 

646
00:33:49,600 --> 00:33:52,680
dissolve. 
The last execution for 

647
00:33:52,680 --> 00:33:55,080
witchcraft in England occurred 
in 1684. 

648
00:33:55,360 --> 00:33:58,400
Scotland's last execution was in
1727. 

649
00:33:58,960 --> 00:34:01,920
In France, the last execution 
was in 1745. 

650
00:34:02,360 --> 00:34:05,680
The Holy Roman Empire ended 
witch trials in 1775. 

651
00:34:06,040 --> 00:34:08,960
These dates mark not sudden 
transformations, but gradual 

652
00:34:08,960 --> 00:34:11,880
recognition that witch 
prosecutions no longer made 

653
00:34:11,880 --> 00:34:15,040
sense within changing legal, 
intellectual and social 

654
00:34:15,040 --> 00:34:18,159
frameworks. 
Poland's last witch trial 

655
00:34:18,159 --> 00:34:22,719
occurred in 1793, notably late 
compared to Western Europe. 

656
00:34:23,159 --> 00:34:26,040
This timing reminds us that 
change happened unevenly across 

657
00:34:26,040 --> 00:34:29,080
the continent, reflecting 
different social and political 

658
00:34:29,080 --> 00:34:31,719
conditions. 
Remote or conservative regions 

659
00:34:31,719 --> 00:34:34,080
maintained beliefs that urban 
centers had abandoned. 

660
00:34:34,440 --> 00:34:37,000
But the legal end of witch 
trials didn't mean the end of 

661
00:34:37,000 --> 00:34:39,960
witchcraft belief. 
Folk beliefs about magical harm,

662
00:34:39,960 --> 00:34:43,199
protective charms, and 
supernatural causation persisted

663
00:34:43,199 --> 00:34:45,600
in rural areas well into the 
20th century. 

664
00:34:45,960 --> 00:34:48,159
People stopped bringing 
witchcraft accusations to 

665
00:34:48,159 --> 00:34:50,920
courts, but they didn't 
necessarily stop believing that 

666
00:34:50,920 --> 00:34:52,600
some neighbors had dangerous 
powers. 

667
00:34:53,000 --> 00:34:55,719
The change was partly about 
belief, but more about what kind

668
00:34:55,719 --> 00:34:58,600
of claims the legal system was 
willing to take seriously. 

669
00:34:59,440 --> 00:35:03,560
In some communities, informal 
persecution continued even after

670
00:35:03,560 --> 00:35:06,520
formal trials ended. 
Someone suspected of witchcraft 

671
00:35:06,520 --> 00:35:09,520
might face social ostracism, 
property damage, or violence 

672
00:35:09,520 --> 00:35:12,760
without any legal proceedings. 
These extra legal actions were 

673
00:35:12,760 --> 00:35:15,800
harder to track than official 
trials, but they represent 

674
00:35:15,800 --> 00:35:19,000
continuity and belief even as 
legal structures changed. 

675
00:35:20,000 --> 00:35:23,000
The Witchcraft Act of 1735 in 
Great Britain marked a 

676
00:35:23,000 --> 00:35:25,280
significant shift in official 
attitudes. 

677
00:35:25,600 --> 00:35:28,400
This law repealed previous 
witchcraft statutes not because 

678
00:35:28,400 --> 00:35:31,240
it accepted that witchcraft was 
real, but because it made 

679
00:35:31,240 --> 00:35:33,920
pretending to practice 
witchcraft or accusing others of

680
00:35:33,920 --> 00:35:36,560
it into a crime. 
The law essentially said 

681
00:35:36,960 --> 00:35:40,640
witchcraft doesn't exist, and 
claiming it does is either fraud

682
00:35:40,760 --> 00:35:43,240
or slander. 
This represented a complete 

683
00:35:43,240 --> 00:35:46,320
reversal of earlier legal 
frameworks that had treated 

684
00:35:46,320 --> 00:35:49,040
witchcraft as a real crime 
requiring prosecution. 

685
00:35:49,760 --> 00:35:53,040
Yet even as educated opinion 
turned against witch trials, 

686
00:35:53,400 --> 00:35:56,240
folk practices related to 
protection from witchcraft 

687
00:35:56,520 --> 00:35:58,520
persisted. 
People continue to use 

688
00:35:58,520 --> 00:36:02,120
horseshoes over doors, to bury 
objects and thresholds, and to 

689
00:36:02,120 --> 00:36:04,480
employ counter magic against 
suspected harm. 

690
00:36:04,800 --> 00:36:08,200
The former legal apparatus of 
witch hunting disappeared, but 

691
00:36:08,200 --> 00:36:11,240
the underlying anxiety about 
malevolent magic took longer to 

692
00:36:11,240 --> 00:36:13,720
fade. 
What finally killed witch 

693
00:36:13,720 --> 00:36:17,120
hunting wasn't necessarily that 
people stopped believing in 

694
00:36:17,120 --> 00:36:20,360
magic, but that they stopped 
believing the legal system 

695
00:36:20,360 --> 00:36:21,800
should be involved in policing 
it. 

696
00:36:22,160 --> 00:36:25,000
Private beliefs about 
supernatural harm persisted even

697
00:36:25,000 --> 00:36:28,280
as public institutions refused 
to prosecute based on those 

698
00:36:28,280 --> 00:36:30,720
beliefs. 
This separation between personal

699
00:36:30,720 --> 00:36:33,760
belief and official action 
represents a significant 

700
00:36:33,800 --> 00:36:37,120
evolution in how modern 
societies handle religious and 

701
00:36:37,120 --> 00:36:40,920
supernatural claims. 
The memory of the witch hunts 

702
00:36:40,920 --> 00:36:43,640
did important cultural work in 
the centuries that followed. 

703
00:36:43,960 --> 00:36:46,960
For Enlightenment thinkers, 
witch trials became an example 

704
00:36:46,960 --> 00:36:49,600
of what happens when 
superstition and religious 

705
00:36:49,600 --> 00:36:53,240
enthusiasm override reason. 
For later generations, witch 

706
00:36:53,240 --> 00:36:56,440
hunt served as a warning about 
mob psychology, about the 

707
00:36:56,440 --> 00:37:00,080
dangers of accusations that are 
impossible to disprove, and 

708
00:37:00,080 --> 00:37:03,120
about how fear can transform 
neighbors into executioners. 

709
00:37:03,680 --> 00:37:07,520
As you pull your blanket tighter
and perhaps refill your tea, 

710
00:37:07,880 --> 00:37:11,440
consider that the witch trials, 
distant as they seem, have left 

711
00:37:11,440 --> 00:37:13,960
marks on our world that remain 
visible if you know where to 

712
00:37:13,960 --> 00:37:16,440
look. 
The English language preserves 

713
00:37:16,440 --> 00:37:19,200
traces of this history and 
phrases we use without thinking 

714
00:37:19,200 --> 00:37:22,600
about their origins. 
Witch hunt has become a standard

715
00:37:22,600 --> 00:37:25,920
metaphor for baseless 
persecution, used by everyone 

716
00:37:25,920 --> 00:37:29,240
from corporate executives 
defending against accusations to

717
00:37:29,240 --> 00:37:31,240
politicians claiming unfair 
treatment. 

718
00:37:31,600 --> 00:37:34,240
The phrase captures something 
essential about the dynamic 

719
00:37:34,760 --> 00:37:37,840
accusations that build on 
themselves, where defending 

720
00:37:37,840 --> 00:37:40,520
yourself only makes you look 
more guilty, and where the 

721
00:37:40,520 --> 00:37:42,480
process itself becomes 
punishment. 

722
00:37:43,520 --> 00:37:47,120
Modern legal protections against
certain types of prosecution 

723
00:37:47,120 --> 00:37:50,320
developed partly in reaction to 
the witch trials, the principle 

724
00:37:50,320 --> 00:37:53,560
that accusation alone isn't 
evidence, the right to confront 

725
00:37:53,560 --> 00:37:57,320
your accusers, the requirement 
for physical proof of crime, and

726
00:37:57,320 --> 00:37:59,200
protections against self 
incrimination. 

727
00:37:59,720 --> 00:38:02,800
These evolved partly from 
recognition of how easily witch 

728
00:38:02,800 --> 00:38:05,840
trial dynamics could produce 
unjust convictions. 

729
00:38:06,120 --> 00:38:09,560
When we say innocent until 
proven guilty, we're embracing a

730
00:38:09,560 --> 00:38:12,480
standard that witch trials 
spectacularly violated. 

731
00:38:13,280 --> 00:38:16,000
The trials also left their mark 
on how we think about women's 

732
00:38:16,000 --> 00:38:18,320
social power. 
The overwhelming majority of 

733
00:38:18,320 --> 00:38:21,520
accused witches were women, and 
the accusations often centred on

734
00:38:21,520 --> 00:38:24,600
behaviours that challenged 
patriarchal norms, female 

735
00:38:24,600 --> 00:38:28,920
independence, female knowledge, 
female sexuality and female 

736
00:38:28,920 --> 00:38:31,240
anger. 
The witch trials were, among 

737
00:38:31,240 --> 00:38:34,520
other things, a mechanism for 
policing gender boundaries for 

738
00:38:34,520 --> 00:38:37,040
punishing women who didn't fit 
prescribed roles. 

739
00:38:37,760 --> 00:38:40,240
This gendered aspect of witch 
hunting has made the witch a 

740
00:38:40,240 --> 00:38:42,520
powerful symbol in modern 
feminist thought. 

741
00:38:42,880 --> 00:38:46,040
The witch, reimagined not as an 
evil figure, but as a woman who 

742
00:38:46,040 --> 00:38:48,760
refused to conform and who 
possessed knowledge and power 

743
00:38:48,760 --> 00:38:51,680
that threatened established 
structures, has become an icon 

744
00:38:51,680 --> 00:38:54,400
of resistance. 
Halloween decorations featuring 

745
00:38:54,400 --> 00:38:56,880
witches on broomsticks carry 
echoes of centuries of 

746
00:38:56,880 --> 00:39:00,760
persecution, transformed into 
something playful but retaining 

747
00:39:00,760 --> 00:39:02,680
a shadow of their darker 
origins. 

748
00:39:03,640 --> 00:39:07,360
In Salem, the trials have become
central to the town's identity 

749
00:39:07,360 --> 00:39:09,680
in ways both thoughtful and 
commercial. 

750
00:39:10,000 --> 00:39:12,560
Museums and memorial sites 
preserve the history, while 

751
00:39:12,560 --> 00:39:16,240
tourism capitalizes on it. 
Walking through modern Salem, 

752
00:39:16,520 --> 00:39:19,480
you pass witchcraft shops 
selling crystals and tarot cards

753
00:39:19,760 --> 00:39:22,240
next to historical markers 
explaining that actual 

754
00:39:22,240 --> 00:39:25,640
witchcraft never occurred. 
The town wrestles with how to 

755
00:39:25,640 --> 00:39:27,840
honour victims while 
acknowledging that it's most 

756
00:39:27,840 --> 00:39:31,440
famous historical episode was 
built on delusion and injustice.

757
00:39:32,080 --> 00:39:36,400
Arthur Miller's 1953 play The 
Crucible use Salem as an 

758
00:39:36,400 --> 00:39:39,640
allegory for Mccarthyist anti 
communist investigations, 

759
00:39:39,640 --> 00:39:42,360
demonstrating how witch trial 
dynamics could recur in modern 

760
00:39:42,360 --> 00:39:44,560
contexts. 
Miller recognized that the 

761
00:39:44,560 --> 00:39:47,840
essential pattern, accusations 
that are hard to disprove, 

762
00:39:48,160 --> 00:39:51,160
social pressure to name 
accomplices, and personal and 

763
00:39:51,160 --> 00:39:55,320
political motivations disguised 
as ideological purity wasn't 

764
00:39:55,320 --> 00:39:58,600
limited to the 17th century. 
The play ensured that Salem 

765
00:39:58,600 --> 00:40:01,160
would remain in cultural memory,
not just as a historical 

766
00:40:01,160 --> 00:40:03,600
curiosity, but as a cautionary 
tale. 

767
00:40:04,440 --> 00:40:07,520
Modern accusations of witchcraft
still occur in some parts of the

768
00:40:07,520 --> 00:40:11,120
world, particularly in regions 
where traditional beliefs remain

769
00:40:11,320 --> 00:40:13,160
strong and legal systems are 
weak. 

770
00:40:13,480 --> 00:40:15,760
In some African and Asian 
communities, witchcraft 

771
00:40:15,760 --> 00:40:18,840
accusations can lead to 
violence, exile, or death. 

772
00:40:19,200 --> 00:40:22,480
These contemporary witch hunts 
follow patterns eerily similar 

773
00:40:22,480 --> 00:40:26,080
to European and American 
historical trials, accusations 

774
00:40:26,080 --> 00:40:29,640
against vulnerable individuals, 
confessions extracted through 

775
00:40:29,640 --> 00:40:32,640
pressure or violence, and 
community scapegoating of 

776
00:40:32,640 --> 00:40:35,720
marginal people. 
International human rights 

777
00:40:35,720 --> 00:40:38,880
organizations now track and work
to prevent witch accusations in 

778
00:40:38,880 --> 00:40:42,320
these regions, recognizing that 
the dynamics that produce the 

779
00:40:42,320 --> 00:40:45,400
European witch hunts haven't 
disappeared, they've just moved 

780
00:40:45,400 --> 00:40:49,280
to different cultural contexts. 
The underlying human tendencies 

781
00:40:49,280 --> 00:40:51,800
that made witch hunting 
possible, the need to explain 

782
00:40:51,800 --> 00:40:55,000
misfortune, the usefulness of 
scapegoats, the power of 

783
00:40:55,000 --> 00:40:58,600
accusations that are difficult 
to disprove remain present in 

784
00:40:58,600 --> 00:41:02,440
human communities everywhere. 
Psychology has provided 

785
00:41:02,440 --> 00:41:05,040
frameworks for understanding 
what happened during historical 

786
00:41:05,040 --> 00:41:08,480
witch trials, mass hysteria, 
conversion disorder, 

787
00:41:08,800 --> 00:41:11,760
confirmation bias, the 
psychology of torture and 

788
00:41:11,760 --> 00:41:15,000
confession, and group dynamics 
in small communities. 

789
00:41:15,600 --> 00:41:19,080
These concepts help explain how 
intelligent, decent people could

790
00:41:19,080 --> 00:41:21,480
participate in or support witch 
prosecutions. 

791
00:41:21,720 --> 00:41:24,240
Understanding these mechanisms 
doesn't make the history less 

792
00:41:24,240 --> 00:41:27,400
troubling, but it does make it 
more comprehensible as something

793
00:41:27,400 --> 00:41:30,640
that emerged from ordinary human
psychology under particular 

794
00:41:30,640 --> 00:41:34,800
social conditions. 
The witch trials also offer 

795
00:41:34,800 --> 00:41:38,200
insights into how societies 
handled invisible threats. 

796
00:41:38,440 --> 00:41:40,760
Whether the threat is 
witchcraft, communism, 

797
00:41:40,760 --> 00:41:44,080
terrorism, or viral contagion, 
communities face similar 

798
00:41:44,080 --> 00:41:46,760
challenges. 
How to respond to genuine danger

799
00:41:46,760 --> 00:41:49,840
without succumbing to panic, how
to protect the vulnerable while 

800
00:41:49,840 --> 00:41:53,680
maintaining security, and how to
distinguish between reasonable 

801
00:41:53,680 --> 00:41:55,560
precaution and destructive 
paranoia. 

802
00:41:55,880 --> 00:41:58,760
The witch trials represent an 
extreme case of getting this 

803
00:41:58,800 --> 00:42:02,520
balance catastrophically wrong. 
Descendants of accused witches 

804
00:42:02,520 --> 00:42:05,640
have worked to clear their 
ancestors names, often facing 

805
00:42:05,640 --> 00:42:09,000
bureaucratic obstacles centuries
after the original accusations. 

806
00:42:09,280 --> 00:42:13,640
In 2001, Massachusetts formally 
exonerated 5 women executed 

807
00:42:13,640 --> 00:42:17,200
during the Salem trials who had 
never received official pardons.

808
00:42:17,760 --> 00:42:22,600
In 2022, the last of the Salem 
witches received exoneration 330

809
00:42:22,600 --> 00:42:25,600
years after her execution. 
These late acknowledgements 

810
00:42:25,600 --> 00:42:28,760
can't undo historical harm, but 
they represent official 

811
00:42:28,760 --> 00:42:30,760
recognition that injustice 
occurred. 

812
00:42:31,600 --> 00:42:34,600
The Wiccan religious movement, 
which emerged in the mid 20th 

813
00:42:34,600 --> 00:42:38,520
century, reclaimed the word 
witch as a positive identity, 

814
00:42:38,920 --> 00:42:41,160
creating a contemporary 
witchcraft practice that has 

815
00:42:41,160 --> 00:42:44,000
nothing to do with demonic packs
or malevolent magic. 

816
00:42:44,320 --> 00:42:47,400
Modern Wiccans practice what 
they describe as nature based 

817
00:42:47,400 --> 00:42:52,120
spirituality, often emphasizing 
healing, harmony, and connection

818
00:42:52,120 --> 00:42:55,000
to seasonal cycles. 
Whether there's any historical 

819
00:42:55,000 --> 00:42:58,040
connection between contemporary 
Wicca and the practices of 

820
00:42:58,040 --> 00:43:01,080
people accused during witch 
trials is debatable, but the 

821
00:43:01,080 --> 00:43:03,680
reclamation of the term 
represents A fascinating 

822
00:43:03,680 --> 00:43:07,360
cultural transformation. 
Academia continues studying 

823
00:43:07,680 --> 00:43:09,480
witch trials from multiple 
angles. 

824
00:43:09,800 --> 00:43:13,040
Social history examining 
community dynamics, gender 

825
00:43:13,040 --> 00:43:15,920
studies analysing the 
persecution of women, legal 

826
00:43:15,920 --> 00:43:18,480
history tracking changes in 
evidentiary standards. 

827
00:43:18,840 --> 00:43:22,200
Religious history exploring 
theological developments, and 

828
00:43:22,400 --> 00:43:25,320
medical history investigating 
possible explanations for 

829
00:43:25,320 --> 00:43:27,240
symptoms attributed to 
bewitchment. 

830
00:43:27,560 --> 00:43:30,280
Each discipline finds different 
aspects of the witch trials 

831
00:43:30,280 --> 00:43:33,480
relevant to its concerns, 
suggesting that these events 

832
00:43:33,480 --> 00:43:36,640
touched on fundamental aspects 
of human social organization. 

833
00:43:37,400 --> 00:43:40,480
The total number of people 
executed during the European and

834
00:43:40,480 --> 00:43:43,040
American witch trials is 
difficult to determine 

835
00:43:43,040 --> 00:43:46,280
precisely. 
Estimates range from 40,000 to 

836
00:43:46,320 --> 00:43:49,640
100,000 over roughly 3 
centuries, with perhaps another 

837
00:43:49,640 --> 00:43:53,320
100,000 to 200,000 formerly 
accused but not executed. 

838
00:43:53,680 --> 00:43:56,440
These numbers are horrifying, 
but also important to keep in 

839
00:43:56,440 --> 00:43:59,600
perspective. 
Witch hunting was terrible, but 

840
00:43:59,600 --> 00:44:02,240
it wasn't the largest source of 
mortality in this period. 

841
00:44:02,800 --> 00:44:06,600
War, disease, famine and 
ordinary crime killed far more 

842
00:44:06,600 --> 00:44:08,640
people. 
The witch trials matter not 

843
00:44:08,640 --> 00:44:11,800
because of their scale relative 
to other tragedies, but because 

844
00:44:11,800 --> 00:44:14,520
of what they reveal about how 
communities can turn on their 

845
00:44:14,520 --> 00:44:17,600
own members. 
Regional variations in witch 

846
00:44:17,600 --> 00:44:20,240
hunting intensity remain 
puzzling to historians. 

847
00:44:20,520 --> 00:44:23,240
Why did some areas execute 
thousands while neighboring 

848
00:44:23,240 --> 00:44:26,840
regions executed almost none? 
Why did witch hunting peak at 

849
00:44:26,840 --> 00:44:28,480
different times in different 
places? 

850
00:44:29,040 --> 00:44:31,000
These questions don't have 
simple answers. 

851
00:44:31,360 --> 00:44:33,920
Local political situations. 
Religious tensions. 

852
00:44:33,960 --> 00:44:37,280
Economic stress, individual 
authorities attitudes and the 

853
00:44:37,280 --> 00:44:39,360
presence or absence of sceptical
voices. 

854
00:44:39,960 --> 00:44:42,720
All these factors interacted in 
complex ways that produce 

855
00:44:42,720 --> 00:44:45,640
dramatically different outcomes 
in seemingly similar 

856
00:44:45,640 --> 00:44:48,240
communities. 
The witch trials also 

857
00:44:48,240 --> 00:44:50,520
demonstrate how quickly social 
norms can shift. 

858
00:44:50,840 --> 00:44:53,520
Communities that executed 
witches one year sometimes 

859
00:44:53,520 --> 00:44:56,160
reversed course the next, 
releasing prisoners and 

860
00:44:56,160 --> 00:44:59,320
questioning what they had done. 
This rapid change suggests that 

861
00:44:59,320 --> 00:45:02,120
witch hunting wasn't an 
inevitable expression of period 

862
00:45:02,120 --> 00:45:05,680
belief systems, but rather a 
particular dynamic that required

863
00:45:05,680 --> 00:45:08,040
specific conditions to sustain 
itself. 

864
00:45:08,400 --> 00:45:11,360
When those conditions changed, 
when authorities withdrew 

865
00:45:11,360 --> 00:45:15,000
support, when skeptical voices 
gained influence, when 

866
00:45:15,000 --> 00:45:18,280
communities exhausted 
themselves, the prosecutions 

867
00:45:18,280 --> 00:45:22,320
could end quickly. 
Outside your window, the night 

868
00:45:22,320 --> 00:45:25,960
continues its ancient routine. 
Indifferent to human fears and 

869
00:45:25,960 --> 00:45:28,360
accusations. 
The darkness that once held 

870
00:45:28,360 --> 00:45:31,080
demons and witches now holds 
only the ordinary mysteries of 

871
00:45:31,080 --> 00:45:33,040
sleeping cities and distant 
stars. 

872
00:45:33,800 --> 00:45:37,360
The history of witches is 
ultimately the history of how 

873
00:45:37,360 --> 00:45:39,280
people understand evil and 
suffering. 

874
00:45:39,640 --> 00:45:42,320
When bad things happened, and 
bad things happened constantly 

875
00:45:42,320 --> 00:45:45,360
in the pre modern world, people 
needed explanations. 

876
00:45:45,720 --> 00:45:48,120
The witch provided an answer 
that was simultaneously 

877
00:45:48,120 --> 00:45:51,640
comforting and terrifying. 
Suffering had a 'cause that 

878
00:45:51,640 --> 00:45:54,760
cause was identifiable and 
eliminating the cause could 

879
00:45:54,760 --> 00:45:58,080
restore safety. 
But this explanation required 

880
00:45:58,080 --> 00:46:01,000
believing that some of your 
neighbors were secretly working 

881
00:46:01,000 --> 00:46:03,600
to harm you, that ordinary 
people could make pacts with 

882
00:46:03,600 --> 00:46:06,680
supernatural evil, and that the 
appearance of normalcy could 

883
00:46:06,680 --> 00:46:09,360
hide malevolent intent. 
Once you accepted these 

884
00:46:09,360 --> 00:46:12,200
premises, the logic of witch 
hunting followed almost 

885
00:46:12,200 --> 00:46:15,040
inevitably. 
If witches exist and can harm 

886
00:46:15,040 --> 00:46:17,880
you, failing to identify and 
eliminate them becomes its own 

887
00:46:17,880 --> 00:46:20,960
form of guilt. 
What we've lost in losing belief

888
00:46:20,960 --> 00:46:24,800
in witches as real supernatural 
threats is perhaps a certain 

889
00:46:24,800 --> 00:46:28,240
sense that the universe is 
morally ordered in simple ways, 

890
00:46:28,680 --> 00:46:31,680
that bad things happen because 
bad people 'cause them, and that

891
00:46:31,680 --> 00:46:34,440
eliminating bad people can 
eliminate bad outcomes. 

892
00:46:34,760 --> 00:46:37,240
What we've gained is the more 
difficult but more accurate 

893
00:46:37,240 --> 00:46:40,320
understanding that suffering 
often has no villain, that 

894
00:46:40,320 --> 00:46:43,680
random chance and impersonal 
forces shape our lives as much 

895
00:46:43,680 --> 00:46:46,840
as human agency, and that 
sometimes there's no one to 

896
00:46:46,840 --> 00:46:51,440
blame when tragedy strikes. 
The people who participated in 

897
00:46:51,440 --> 00:46:55,440
witch trials, accusers, 
witnesses, judges, executioners,

898
00:46:55,920 --> 00:46:58,400
were not, for the most part, 
cruel or unusual. 

899
00:46:58,760 --> 00:47:01,200
They were ordinary people, 
operating within belief systems 

900
00:47:01,200 --> 00:47:04,240
that made sense in their 
cultural context, responding to 

901
00:47:04,240 --> 00:47:07,360
genuine fears with methods that 
their society endorsed. 

902
00:47:07,840 --> 00:47:10,120
This is both comforting and 
disturbing. 

903
00:47:10,480 --> 00:47:13,160
Comforting because it means 
witch hunting wasn't the result 

904
00:47:13,160 --> 00:47:16,440
of individual evil, but of 
systemic failures of reasoning 

905
00:47:16,440 --> 00:47:19,600
and institutional checks. 
Disturbing because it suggests 

906
00:47:19,600 --> 00:47:22,360
that ordinary people, people 
like us, can participate in 

907
00:47:22,360 --> 00:47:24,640
terrible things when the right 
conditions align. 

908
00:47:25,800 --> 00:47:28,920
Modern individuals reading about
witch trials often wonder, would

909
00:47:28,920 --> 00:47:31,080
I have gone along? 
Would I have accused my 

910
00:47:31,080 --> 00:47:34,240
neighbors, testified against 
them, or stood in the crowd 

911
00:47:34,240 --> 00:47:37,400
watching executions? 
The uncomfortable truth is that 

912
00:47:37,400 --> 00:47:40,720
most of us probably would have. 
Not because we're bad people, 

913
00:47:41,120 --> 00:47:43,880
but because social pressure, 
cultural assumptions and the 

914
00:47:43,880 --> 00:47:46,240
architecture of our beliefs 
shape behaviour in ways that are

915
00:47:46,240 --> 00:47:49,800
very difficult to resist. 
Individually, the heroes of 

916
00:47:49,800 --> 00:47:52,920
witch trial history are often 
those who said no when everyone 

917
00:47:52,920 --> 00:47:55,800
around them was saying yes. 
The judges who refused to 

918
00:47:55,800 --> 00:47:59,200
convict despite community 
pressure, the neighbors who 

919
00:47:59,200 --> 00:48:02,200
testified in favour of accused 
witches despite the risk to 

920
00:48:02,200 --> 00:48:05,760
their own reputations. 
The ministers questioned whether

921
00:48:05,760 --> 00:48:07,480
spectral evidence should be 
trusted. 

922
00:48:07,800 --> 00:48:10,800
These individuals demonstrated 
that resistance was possible, 

923
00:48:11,160 --> 00:48:13,920
that going along wasn't 
inevitable, and the individual 

924
00:48:13,920 --> 00:48:17,120
choice retained meaning even 
within oppressive systems. 

925
00:48:18,000 --> 00:48:20,680
But celebrating these resistors 
shouldn't let the rest of us off

926
00:48:20,680 --> 00:48:23,960
the hook too easily. 
For every person who resisted, 

927
00:48:24,200 --> 00:48:26,800
hundreds participated or stood 
silently by. 

928
00:48:27,160 --> 00:48:30,440
The witch trials happened not 
because a few evil people forced

929
00:48:30,440 --> 00:48:33,880
them on reluctant communities, 
but because communities largely 

930
00:48:33,880 --> 00:48:37,200
supported them, saw them as 
necessary, and participated 

931
00:48:37,200 --> 00:48:39,280
willingly. 
Any honest reckoning with this 

932
00:48:39,280 --> 00:48:42,000
history requires acknowledging 
that most people, most of the 

933
00:48:42,000 --> 00:48:45,440
time, go along with what their 
society tells them is right and 

934
00:48:45,440 --> 00:48:49,080
necessary. 
The lesson isn't that we should 

935
00:48:49,080 --> 00:48:51,120
feel guilty for what our 
ancestors did. 

936
00:48:51,520 --> 00:48:54,640
Collective guilt across 
centuries makes no sense. 

937
00:48:54,960 --> 00:48:58,200
The lesson is that we should 
examine our own certainties, our

938
00:48:58,200 --> 00:49:01,800
own community scapegoats, and 
our own participation in systems

939
00:49:01,800 --> 00:49:03,960
that might look unjust to future
generations. 

940
00:49:04,200 --> 00:49:06,960
What beliefs do we hold now that
will seem as obviously wrong in 

941
00:49:06,960 --> 00:49:09,320
300 years as witch hunting seems
to us? 

942
00:49:10,040 --> 00:49:13,040
The witch trials teach us to be 
suspicious of accusations that 

943
00:49:13,040 --> 00:49:16,760
are impossible to disprove of 
evidence that consists mainly of

944
00:49:17,000 --> 00:49:21,240
reputation and rumor, of legal 
systems that treat confession as

945
00:49:21,240 --> 00:49:24,880
the only path to mercy, and of 
communities that need enemies to

946
00:49:24,880 --> 00:49:27,720
maintain cohesion. 
They teach us that fear is a 

947
00:49:27,720 --> 00:49:31,480
terrible foundation for justice,
that panic makes people capable 

948
00:49:31,480 --> 00:49:34,320
of cruelty they'd normally 
reject, and that the difference 

949
00:49:34,320 --> 00:49:36,920
between civilization and 
barbarism is thinner than we'd 

950
00:49:36,920 --> 00:49:39,840
like to believe. 
They also teach us something 

951
00:49:39,840 --> 00:49:41,880
about the endurance of human 
communities. 

952
00:49:41,880 --> 00:49:46,160
Despite terrible mistakes, Salem
didn't disappear after 1692. 

953
00:49:46,600 --> 00:49:48,440
Wiltsberg recovered from its 
trials. 

954
00:49:48,720 --> 00:49:51,880
Communities that burned witches 
went on to become peaceful towns

955
00:49:51,880 --> 00:49:55,240
where people lived ordinary 
lives, raised children, tended 

956
00:49:55,240 --> 00:49:58,040
gardens, and mostly forgot what 
their ancestors had done. 

957
00:49:58,360 --> 00:50:01,800
Humans are remarkably good at 
moving on but forgetting at 

958
00:50:01,800 --> 00:50:04,640
rebuilding normal life after 
extraordinary cruelty. 

959
00:50:05,360 --> 00:50:08,160
Whether this resilience is 
admirable or troubling depends 

960
00:50:08,160 --> 00:50:10,760
on your perspective. 
It's admirable that communities 

961
00:50:10,760 --> 00:50:12,520
can recover from collective 
madness. 

962
00:50:12,760 --> 00:50:15,280
It's troubling that they can do 
well enough that the lessons 

963
00:50:15,280 --> 00:50:18,280
might not be learned, that 
future generations might be 

964
00:50:18,280 --> 00:50:21,840
susceptible to similar dynamics.
Because the memory has faded, 

965
00:50:22,400 --> 00:50:26,080
the physical traces of witch 
trials are mostly gone, a few 

966
00:50:26,080 --> 00:50:29,680
memorial stones, some preserved 
documents and historical 

967
00:50:29,680 --> 00:50:31,560
markers. 
In places where executions 

968
00:50:31,560 --> 00:50:35,400
occurred, the dead left no 
graves to visit, their bodies 

969
00:50:35,400 --> 00:50:37,360
having been burned or buried 
without ceremony. 

970
00:50:37,360 --> 00:50:40,640
In many cases, the absence of 
physical memorials makes the 

971
00:50:40,640 --> 00:50:43,840
history feel more distant, 
easier to dismiss as something 

972
00:50:43,840 --> 00:50:46,040
that happened long ago and 
couldn't happen now. 

973
00:50:46,760 --> 00:50:49,720
But the absence of memorials 
also means we carry this history

974
00:50:49,720 --> 00:50:53,400
internally, as a story we tell 
about human nature and social 

975
00:50:53,400 --> 00:50:56,320
dynamics, rather than as a 
specific place we can visit and 

976
00:50:56,320 --> 00:50:58,880
leave behind. 
The witch trials exist now 

977
00:50:58,880 --> 00:51:02,520
primarily as a cautionary tale, 
as a metaphor, as a warning. 

978
00:51:02,840 --> 00:51:05,200
And perhaps that's the form in 
which they're most useful. 

979
00:51:05,920 --> 00:51:08,600
As you prepare for sleep, 
consider that the same darkness 

980
00:51:08,600 --> 00:51:12,040
that once held such terror for 
our ancestors now holds a kind 

981
00:51:12,040 --> 00:51:14,680
of peace. 
The night is no longer populated

982
00:51:14,680 --> 00:51:16,600
with demons and malevolent 
spirits. 

983
00:51:16,920 --> 00:51:19,360
The shadows in the corner of 
your room are just shadows, the 

984
00:51:19,360 --> 00:51:22,480
creaking of the house is just 
wood settling, and the neighbor 

985
00:51:22,480 --> 00:51:24,960
who seems strange is just 
someone with different habits 

986
00:51:24,960 --> 00:51:27,960
and preferences. 
This demystification of the 

987
00:51:27,960 --> 00:51:31,480
night, this taming of darkness 
through understanding, 

988
00:51:31,480 --> 00:51:33,920
represents 1 of modernity's 
genuine gifts. 

989
00:51:34,200 --> 00:51:37,040
We've lost the enchanted 
universe where magic was real 

990
00:51:37,360 --> 00:51:40,800
and spirits walked among us, but
we've gained a world where 

991
00:51:40,800 --> 00:51:43,880
random misfortune doesn't 
require malevolent explanation, 

992
00:51:44,200 --> 00:51:46,320
where your neighbors 
eccentricity doesn't make them 

993
00:51:46,320 --> 00:51:49,760
dangerous, and where difference 
doesn't equal threat. 

994
00:51:50,400 --> 00:51:53,400
The last person executed for 
witchcraft died centuries ago. 

995
00:51:53,760 --> 00:51:56,600
The last official witch trial 
ended long before anyone now 

996
00:51:56,600 --> 00:51:59,600
living was born. 
The machinery of persecution 

997
00:51:59,600 --> 00:52:03,120
that operated for so long has 
been dismantled, its methods 

998
00:52:03,120 --> 00:52:05,800
discredited and its assumptions 
rejected. 

999
00:52:06,200 --> 00:52:09,400
This is progress worth 
acknowledging, even as we remain

1000
00:52:09,400 --> 00:52:12,120
alert to how similar dynamics 
might manifest in different 

1001
00:52:12,120 --> 00:52:15,160
forms. 
Tonight, as you drift towards 

1002
00:52:15,160 --> 00:52:18,240
sleep, you can do so without 
fear that someone might accuse 

1003
00:52:18,240 --> 00:52:21,840
you of impossible crimes, that 
your midnight dreams might be 

1004
00:52:21,840 --> 00:52:25,080
used as evidence against you, or
that your spirit might be 

1005
00:52:25,080 --> 00:52:27,360
claimed to have left your 
sleeping body to harm your 

1006
00:52:27,360 --> 00:52:29,720
neighbors. 
These fears, which once seemed 

1007
00:52:29,720 --> 00:52:33,040
perfectly reasonable to millions
of people, have been consigned 

1008
00:52:33,040 --> 00:52:35,520
to history. 
But history is never as distant 

1009
00:52:35,520 --> 00:52:37,880
as we imagine. 
The human tendencies that 

1010
00:52:37,880 --> 00:52:40,880
produced witch trials, the need 
to explain suffering, the 

1011
00:52:40,880 --> 00:52:44,200
comfort of identifying enemies, 
the power of accusations, the 

1012
00:52:44,200 --> 00:52:46,760
danger of certainty, remain with
us. 

1013
00:52:47,080 --> 00:52:50,520
The forms change, but the 
patterns persist, appearing in 

1014
00:52:50,520 --> 00:52:53,160
different contexts, with 
different vocabularies but 

1015
00:52:53,160 --> 00:52:56,680
recognizable structures. 
The witch trials remind us that 

1016
00:52:56,680 --> 00:53:00,040
civilization is an achievement 
requiring constant maintenance, 

1017
00:53:00,440 --> 00:53:04,120
that justice is fragile, and 
that mercy must be chosen again 

1018
00:53:04,120 --> 00:53:06,520
and again. 
They remind us to be sceptical 

1019
00:53:06,520 --> 00:53:09,120
of our own certainties, 
compassionate toward those 

1020
00:53:09,120 --> 00:53:13,200
accused, careful about how we 
explain misfortune, and humble 

1021
00:53:13,200 --> 00:53:16,480
about how much we truly know. 
They also remind us that 

1022
00:53:16,480 --> 00:53:20,640
individuals matter, that choices
matter, and that resistance is 

1023
00:53:20,640 --> 00:53:22,280
possible even when it's 
difficult. 

1024
00:53:22,680 --> 00:53:25,640
The people who spoke up for 
accused witches, who questioned 

1025
00:53:25,640 --> 00:53:28,760
the proceedings, who refused to 
participate in persecution 

1026
00:53:28,760 --> 00:53:32,160
despite pressure, These 
individuals demonstrated that 

1027
00:53:32,160 --> 00:53:35,360
we're not helpless before social
forces, that moral courage 

1028
00:53:35,360 --> 00:53:37,760
remains meaningful even when 
it's uncommon. 

1029
00:53:38,400 --> 00:53:41,000
As your eyes grow heavy and the 
room around you softens into the

1030
00:53:41,000 --> 00:53:44,320
gentle blur of approaching 
sleep, you might spare a thought

1031
00:53:44,320 --> 00:53:46,920
for all those accused of 
impossible things, for 

1032
00:53:46,920 --> 00:53:50,800
communities torn apart by fear, 
and for the slow, uneven 

1033
00:53:50,800 --> 00:53:53,560
progress toward more just and 
rational ways of handling 

1034
00:53:53,560 --> 00:53:57,360
misfortune and difference. 
The story of witches, from 

1035
00:53:57,360 --> 00:54:00,600
belief through persecution to 
the fading of the trials, is 

1036
00:54:00,600 --> 00:54:02,440
ultimately a story about 
learning. 

1037
00:54:02,800 --> 00:54:06,000
Humanity learned, slowly and at 
terrible cost, that supernatural

1038
00:54:06,000 --> 00:54:09,600
explanations for misfortune were
unnecessary, the accusations 

1039
00:54:09,600 --> 00:54:12,600
required evidence, the 
difference didn't equal danger, 

1040
00:54:12,920 --> 00:54:14,760
and that mercy was stronger than
fear. 

1041
00:54:15,640 --> 00:54:18,720
These lessons weren't learned 
perfectly or completely. 

1042
00:54:19,120 --> 00:54:21,600
They weren't learned everywhere 
simultaneously. 

1043
00:54:22,240 --> 00:54:25,040
They had to be learned again and
again, sometimes forgotten and 

1044
00:54:25,040 --> 00:54:27,680
relearned. 
But they were learned, and the 

1045
00:54:27,680 --> 00:54:31,160
world became, in this respect at
least, a gentler place. 

1046
00:54:31,560 --> 00:54:35,480
Sleep now in your safe, 
comfortable bed, in your room 

1047
00:54:35,480 --> 00:54:38,880
that holds no demons in your 
community, that doesn't burn 

1048
00:54:38,880 --> 00:54:41,960
witches. 
Sleep knowing that the darkness 

1049
00:54:41,960 --> 00:54:45,200
outside your window is just the 
absence of light, that your 

1050
00:54:45,200 --> 00:54:48,520
strange dreams are just your 
brain processing information, 

1051
00:54:49,000 --> 00:54:51,840
and that your difficult neighbor
is just a person with different 

1052
00:54:51,840 --> 00:54:56,680
views and habits. 
The witch trials are over. 

1053
00:54:56,960 --> 00:55:00,000
Their lessons remain. 
And that combination, the end of

1054
00:55:00,000 --> 00:55:03,880
1 horror, the preservation of 
its lessons, represents one of 

1055
00:55:03,880 --> 00:55:07,160
history's quiet victories, the 
kind that doesn't announce 

1056
00:55:07,160 --> 00:55:10,240
itself with trumpets and 
celebrations, that simply makes 

1057
00:55:10,320 --> 00:55:12,880
ordinary life possible for 
ordinary people. 

1058
00:55:13,240 --> 00:55:16,120
Tomorrow you'll wake to a world 
where witches exist only in 

1059
00:55:16,120 --> 00:55:19,480
Halloween decorations and 
fantasy novels, where history 

1060
00:55:19,480 --> 00:55:22,640
has become story, and where the 
fears that once seemed so 

1061
00:55:22,640 --> 00:55:24,800
reasonable now seem 
incomprehensible. 

1062
00:55:25,120 --> 00:55:28,080
And that change from reasonable 
fear to incomprehensible 

1063
00:55:28,080 --> 00:55:31,680
superstition represents not just
the passage of time, but the 

1064
00:55:31,680 --> 00:55:35,840
slow, uneven, precious growth of
human understanding. 

1065
00:55:36,520 --> 00:55:39,880
Rest well knowing that this 
particular darkness has been 

1066
00:55:39,880 --> 00:55:43,200
illuminated, that this 
particular fear has been named 

1067
00:55:43,200 --> 00:55:45,960
and understood, and that this 
particular mistake is now 

1068
00:55:45,960 --> 00:55:49,240
preserved as a cautionary tale 
rather than repeated as a tragic

1069
00:55:49,240 --> 00:55:52,360
practice. 
The night holds only night, the 

1070
00:55:52,360 --> 00:55:55,920
darkness holds only darkness, 
and that, in its own quiet way, 

1071
00:55:55,920 --> 00:55:59,480
is something close to grace. 
Sleep well, the witch trials are

1072
00:55:59,480 --> 00:56:01,200
history, and mourning always 
comes. 

1073
00:56:10,560 --> 00:56:13,200
Your earliest ancestors were 
performing before Netflix, 

1074
00:56:13,400 --> 00:56:16,560
before Broadway, and before 
anyone even considered charging 

1075
00:56:16,560 --> 00:56:20,240
for entertainment. 
Imagine a cave from 40,000 years

1076
00:56:20,240 --> 00:56:22,880
ago. 
The fire is crackling, someone 

1077
00:56:22,880 --> 00:56:25,880
begins to tell a story about the
day's mammoth hunt, and the 

1078
00:56:25,880 --> 00:56:28,800
dishes are finished. 
Or there weren't dishes, but you

1079
00:56:29,320 --> 00:56:32,320
get the idea. 
The interesting part, though, is

1080
00:56:32,320 --> 00:56:34,520
that they did more than merely 
recount the tale. 

1081
00:56:34,880 --> 00:56:38,240
Oh no, that would be too easy. 
Someone took a mammoth hide and 

1082
00:56:38,240 --> 00:56:39,680
began to play the role of the 
mammoth. 

1083
00:56:40,040 --> 00:56:43,120
Someone else posed as the 
courageous hunter to symbolize 

1084
00:56:43,120 --> 00:56:46,160
the shaman who blessed the hunt.
A third person picked up some 

1085
00:56:46,160 --> 00:56:48,120
berries and painted stripes on 
their face. 

1086
00:56:48,480 --> 00:56:51,480
Before you know it, you have the
1st dinner theatre in human 

1087
00:56:51,480 --> 00:56:55,480
history, complete with method 
acting real costumes in a small,

1088
00:56:55,480 --> 00:56:58,640
intimate setting. 
Remember, these weren't just any

1089
00:56:58,640 --> 00:57:01,280
old shenanigans. 
Directors of contemporary 

1090
00:57:01,280 --> 00:57:04,280
community theatre would be 
envious of the practical uses of

1091
00:57:04,280 --> 00:57:07,240
these early productions. 
Important survival knowledge, 

1092
00:57:07,240 --> 00:57:10,240
such as which berries won't kill
you and how to avoid becoming 

1093
00:57:10,240 --> 00:57:13,120
something else's dinner, was 
passed down thanks to them. 

1094
00:57:13,480 --> 00:57:16,040
They strengthened ties within 
the community because nothing 

1095
00:57:16,040 --> 00:57:19,440
unites people like seeing Uncle 
Grok perform his encounter with 

1096
00:57:19,440 --> 00:57:22,960
a Saber toothed tiger for the 
15th time, complete with 

1097
00:57:22,960 --> 00:57:26,080
homemade sound effects and 
increasingly complex mind work. 

1098
00:57:26,480 --> 00:57:29,000
The irony is that we were 
already formulating what would 

1099
00:57:29,000 --> 00:57:31,320
eventually become the 
fundamental principle of all 

1100
00:57:31,320 --> 00:57:34,160
performances. 
The audience must voluntarily 

1101
00:57:34,160 --> 00:57:37,040
suspend their disbelief. 
Everyone gathered around that 

1102
00:57:37,040 --> 00:57:39,920
fire was well aware that it 
wasn't actually a mammoth, but 

1103
00:57:39,920 --> 00:57:43,440
rather Bob in a fur suit, his 
hands cupped around his mouth, 

1104
00:57:43,760 --> 00:57:47,160
making trumpet like noises. 
However, they consented to 

1105
00:57:47,160 --> 00:57:50,200
comply, allowing themselves to 
be drawn into the narrative. 

1106
00:57:50,680 --> 00:57:53,120
Even though the costumes have 
become much more elaborate and 

1107
00:57:53,120 --> 00:57:56,200
the venues are much less likely 
to be overrun by real wild 

1108
00:57:56,200 --> 00:57:58,720
animals. 
That is the magic contract 

1109
00:57:58,720 --> 00:58:01,640
between the performer and the 
audience that still exists 

1110
00:58:01,640 --> 00:58:03,760
today. 
These early performances also 

1111
00:58:03,760 --> 00:58:05,680
appear to have been more than 
casual affairs. 

1112
00:58:05,920 --> 00:58:09,120
According to archaeological 
evidence, figures wearing ornate

1113
00:58:09,120 --> 00:58:12,360
headdresses and participating in
ritualistic activities are 

1114
00:58:12,360 --> 00:58:15,680
depicted in cave paintings from 
Lascaux and other locations in 

1115
00:58:15,680 --> 00:58:17,640
what seem to be ceremonial 
poses. 

1116
00:58:17,880 --> 00:58:20,600
Certain cave formations, 
according to some researchers, 

1117
00:58:20,920 --> 00:58:23,160
were picked especially for their
acoustic qualities. 

1118
00:58:23,520 --> 00:58:26,920
Natural amphitheatres where 
tales could be told and retold 

1119
00:58:26,920 --> 00:58:29,880
with the most dramatic effect. 
These early societies 

1120
00:58:29,880 --> 00:58:31,960
performance traditions evolved 
along with them. 

1121
00:58:32,520 --> 00:58:35,640
Coming of age rituals, 
successful hunts, territorial 

1122
00:58:35,640 --> 00:58:38,440
agreements and seasonal 
celebrations of the solstices 

1123
00:58:38,840 --> 00:58:41,880
all became occasions forever. 
More complicated theatrical 

1124
00:58:41,880 --> 00:58:44,680
performances. 
The shaman or tribal storyteller

1125
00:58:44,680 --> 00:58:47,640
developed into something like a 
director directing group 

1126
00:58:47,640 --> 00:58:50,720
activities and maintaining the 
customs of telling some stories.

1127
00:58:51,000 --> 00:58:54,200
A few thousand years later, 
you're in ancient Egypt, where 

1128
00:58:54,200 --> 00:58:56,800
someone had the brilliant notion
that if ordinary stories were 

1129
00:58:56,800 --> 00:58:59,600
good, then stories about 
Pharaohs and gods must be 

1130
00:58:59,600 --> 00:59:02,400
fantastic. 
With intricate costumes, make up

1131
00:59:02,400 --> 00:59:04,800
techniques that would make a 
contemporary drag queen weep 

1132
00:59:04,800 --> 00:59:09,600
with admiration and scripts, 
hieroglyphic ones, of course, 

1133
00:59:10,120 --> 00:59:13,040
the Egyptians transform the 
primal human urge to perform 

1134
00:59:13,040 --> 00:59:15,680
into something that approached 
professional theatre. 

1135
00:59:15,920 --> 00:59:18,760
In essence, Egyptian religious 
ceremonies were high stakes 

1136
00:59:18,760 --> 00:59:21,880
theatrical productions. 
If you fumble your lines, you 

1137
00:59:21,880 --> 00:59:24,920
risked upsetting a God, which 
was far worse than receiving a 

1138
00:59:24,920 --> 00:59:26,680
poor review in the local 
papyrus. 

1139
00:59:27,280 --> 00:59:29,400
Nor were these solemn, quiet 
services. 

1140
00:59:29,760 --> 00:59:32,440
They were grand events with 
hundreds of participants, 

1141
00:59:32,680 --> 00:59:35,480
intricate processions and 
special effects that must have 

1142
00:59:35,480 --> 00:59:38,360
appeared completely magical to 
viewers who are unaware of their

1143
00:59:38,360 --> 00:59:40,920
workings. 
The story of the God's death and

1144
00:59:40,920 --> 00:59:44,520
resurrection was narrated over 
several days of performances 

1145
00:59:44,520 --> 00:59:48,000
that swept across entire cities.
During the yearly Osiris 

1146
00:59:48,000 --> 00:59:50,240
festivals, which were especially
theatrical. 

1147
00:59:50,560 --> 00:59:52,560
Parts of the story would be 
assigned to different 

1148
00:59:52,560 --> 00:59:55,800
neighborhoods, resulting in a 
theatrical experience that 

1149
00:59:55,800 --> 00:59:59,440
stretched throughout the entire 
city and made contemporary site 

1150
00:59:59,440 --> 01:00:02,520
specific theatre appear 
positively modest. 

1151
01:00:02,880 --> 01:00:05,320
The fact that Egyptian 
performance created numerous 

1152
01:00:05,320 --> 01:00:09,160
customs that still exist today 
is what makes it so fascinating.

1153
01:00:09,600 --> 01:00:13,000
They created complex methods for
implying supernatural happenings

1154
01:00:13,000 --> 01:00:16,920
on stage, such as trap doors for
gods to come and go, ornate 

1155
01:00:16,920 --> 01:00:20,360
masks and costumes to turn human
actors into gods, and 

1156
01:00:20,360 --> 01:00:23,200
meticulously planned movements 
that gave the appearance of 

1157
01:00:23,480 --> 01:00:26,840
supernatural strength. 
The idea of a theatrical season 

1158
01:00:26,840 --> 01:00:29,720
linked to agricultural and 
religious calendars was also 

1159
01:00:29,720 --> 01:00:32,720
invented by the Egyptians. 
The year round cycle of 

1160
01:00:32,720 --> 01:00:35,440
theatrical activity that kept 
audiences interested and 

1161
01:00:35,440 --> 01:00:39,080
performers employed was created 
by the various festivals that 

1162
01:00:39,080 --> 01:00:41,400
held various kinds of 
performances throughout the 

1163
01:00:41,400 --> 01:00:43,240
year. 
They realized something that 

1164
01:00:43,240 --> 01:00:45,560
contemporary theatre producers 
are still discovering. 

1165
01:00:45,960 --> 01:00:48,760
Audience loyalty is increased by
consistent programming. 

1166
01:00:49,480 --> 01:00:52,440
Papyri and Egyptian tomb 
paintings also demonstrate that 

1167
01:00:52,440 --> 01:00:54,960
these performances weren't 
stuffy or overly solemn. 

1168
01:00:55,360 --> 01:00:58,360
There was a place for comedy, 
frequently in the form of minor 

1169
01:00:58,360 --> 01:01:00,800
characters and servants who 
offered light hearted relief 

1170
01:01:00,800 --> 01:01:02,520
from the more sombre, divine 
drama. 

1171
01:01:02,920 --> 01:01:05,920
The Egyptians recognized that 
audiences needed a few laughs to

1172
01:01:05,920 --> 01:01:09,000
keep things from becoming too 
serious, even in tales about 

1173
01:01:09,000 --> 01:01:11,480
life, death, and eternal 
judgement. 

1174
01:01:11,840 --> 01:01:15,000
We now travel to ancient Greece,
where someone had the brilliant 

1175
01:01:15,000 --> 01:01:18,880
idea to elevate storytelling to 
a formal activity, complete with

1176
01:01:18,880 --> 01:01:22,360
regulations, contests, and the 
kind of critical thinking that 

1177
01:01:22,360 --> 01:01:25,200
would make graduate students 
today feel completely at home. 

1178
01:01:25,200 --> 01:01:28,440
It was impossible for the 
Greeks, bless them to simply 

1179
01:01:28,440 --> 01:01:31,280
appreciate a good story. 
They had to classify it, 

1180
01:01:31,480 --> 01:01:34,640
evaluate it, and then most 
likely compose a philosophical 

1181
01:01:34,640 --> 01:01:37,640
treatise on whether or not it 
effectively elicited catharsis 

1182
01:01:37,640 --> 01:01:40,680
through fear and pity. 
The Greeks created what is now 

1183
01:01:40,680 --> 01:01:43,800
known as formal drama during 
religious festivals celebrating 

1184
01:01:43,800 --> 01:01:47,600
Dionysus, the God of wine, which
explains a lot about theatre's 

1185
01:01:47,600 --> 01:01:50,720
relationship with altered states
of consciousness in the 6th 

1186
01:01:50,720 --> 01:01:54,160
century BCE. 
Picture the scene Throngs of 

1187
01:01:54,160 --> 01:01:56,920
people gathered in massive 
outdoor amphitheatres carved 

1188
01:01:56,920 --> 01:02:00,120
into the sides of hills, 
listening to actors in flowing 

1189
01:02:00,120 --> 01:02:03,960
robes and ornate masks narrate 
tales of heroes, gods and the 

1190
01:02:03,960 --> 01:02:07,000
occasional dysfunctional family 
that would make contemporary 

1191
01:02:07,000 --> 01:02:09,040
soap operas appear positively 
restrained. 

1192
01:02:09,400 --> 01:02:12,320
Let's take a moment to discuss 
those amphitheatres, though, as 

1193
01:02:12,320 --> 01:02:14,920
they were engineering wonders 
that contemporary architects 

1194
01:02:14,920 --> 01:02:18,560
continue to admire. 
About 17,000 people could fit in

1195
01:02:18,560 --> 01:02:21,920
Athens Theatre of Dionysus, and 
the acoustics was so well 

1196
01:02:21,920 --> 01:02:24,480
designed that a whisper from the
stage could be heard in the back

1197
01:02:24,480 --> 01:02:26,680
row. 
Excellent knowledge of sound and

1198
01:02:26,680 --> 01:02:29,640
space without the use of 
microphones or amplification. 

1199
01:02:30,200 --> 01:02:32,840
Every audience member had an 
unhindered view of the action 

1200
01:02:32,840 --> 01:02:35,360
thanks to the seating 
arrangement, which was set up in

1201
01:02:35,360 --> 01:02:38,240
a perfect semicircle. 
By the way, the masks weren't 

1202
01:02:38,240 --> 01:02:40,880
merely decorative. 
The person in the back row, who 

1203
01:02:40,880 --> 01:02:43,080
is likely squinting and 
questioning whether they should 

1204
01:02:43,080 --> 01:02:45,600
have brought their antiquated 
equivalent of opera glasses, 

1205
01:02:46,120 --> 01:02:48,840
needed something to help project
emotion in those enormous 

1206
01:02:48,840 --> 01:02:51,360
amphitheatres. 
These masks were artistic 

1207
01:02:51,360 --> 01:02:54,640
creations carved to symbolize 
various character types and 

1208
01:02:54,640 --> 01:02:59,120
emotions. 
Happy, sad, angry, confused. 

1209
01:02:59,520 --> 01:03:02,440
All the emotions you go through 
on a normal Monday morning, but 

1210
01:03:02,440 --> 01:03:05,760
artistically captured in 
plaster, wood and linen that 

1211
01:03:05,760 --> 01:03:07,520
would make contemporary 
designers cry. 

1212
01:03:07,960 --> 01:03:10,520
The Greeks are credited with 
creating the idea of the tragic 

1213
01:03:10,520 --> 01:03:13,560
hero, but they also 
unintentionally created stage 

1214
01:03:13,560 --> 01:03:15,680
fright. 
His name lives on in the word 

1215
01:03:15,680 --> 01:03:18,600
thespian, though I'm sure he 
never imagined future actors 

1216
01:03:18,600 --> 01:03:20,880
would use it to sound more 
important at dinner parties. 

1217
01:03:21,280 --> 01:03:24,840
Imagine poor Thespis, who is 
frequently regarded as the first

1218
01:03:24,840 --> 01:03:28,160
actor, standing alone on stage 
for the first time and likely 

1219
01:03:28,160 --> 01:03:30,520
thinking, What have I gotten 
myself into? 

1220
01:03:31,040 --> 01:03:34,680
Yesterday I participated in a 
chorus and now suddenly everyone

1221
01:03:34,680 --> 01:03:37,840
is staring at me, expecting me 
to be engaging on my own. 

1222
01:03:38,200 --> 01:03:41,640
Greek tragedy dealt with serious
issues such as justice, fate, 

1223
01:03:41,640 --> 01:03:44,320
family, honour, and whether or 
not the gods were amused at 

1224
01:03:44,320 --> 01:03:46,720
human expense. 
Spoiler alert, they usually 

1225
01:03:46,720 --> 01:03:48,640
were. 
Aeschylus created what were 

1226
01:03:48,640 --> 01:03:51,680
effectively ancient miniseries 
with greater production values 

1227
01:03:51,680 --> 01:03:54,600
and more divine intervention 
through his trilogies, which 

1228
01:03:54,600 --> 01:03:58,240
examined a single theme across 
several plays in order to create

1229
01:03:58,240 --> 01:04:00,680
that delicious tension that 
keeps you wriggling in your 

1230
01:04:00,680 --> 01:04:03,360
seat. 
Sophocles perfected the art of 

1231
01:04:03,360 --> 01:04:06,600
dramatic irony, in which the 
audience knows something that 

1232
01:04:06,600 --> 01:04:09,720
the characters do not. 
However, the Greeks also 

1233
01:04:09,720 --> 01:04:12,800
provided us with comedy, and it 
was politically incorrect and 

1234
01:04:12,840 --> 01:04:16,200
delightfully crude in ways that 
would make audiences today gasp 

1235
01:04:16,200 --> 01:04:19,240
and then giggle in private. 
Because Aristophanes plays were 

1236
01:04:19,240 --> 01:04:22,440
full of political satire, 
bathroom humor, and the kind of 

1237
01:04:22,440 --> 01:04:25,360
jokes that made respectable 
citizens clutch their togas and 

1238
01:04:25,360 --> 01:04:28,280
pretend to be scandalized while 
actually enjoying every minute, 

1239
01:04:28,720 --> 01:04:31,200
he would have thrived on social 
media. 

1240
01:04:31,480 --> 01:04:34,440
It is impossible to exaggerate 
how competitive Greek theatre 

1241
01:04:34,440 --> 01:04:37,040
is. 
Playwrights, actors and choruses

1242
01:04:37,040 --> 01:04:40,120
competed for prizes and public 
recognition during the dramatic 

1243
01:04:40,120 --> 01:04:42,600
festivals, which were more than 
just parties. 

1244
01:04:43,000 --> 01:04:45,840
Think of the Olympics for the 
theatre, complete with all the 

1245
01:04:45,840 --> 01:04:48,960
political scheming, artistic 
competitions, and heated public 

1246
01:04:48,960 --> 01:04:51,960
arguments over the judges. 
While losers likely went home 

1247
01:04:51,960 --> 01:04:54,600
and grumbled about the judges 
not appreciating their artistic 

1248
01:04:54,600 --> 01:04:57,960
vision, winners rose to fame 
throughout the Greek world. 

1249
01:04:58,280 --> 01:05:01,480
The chorus was the centre of 
these productions, despite being

1250
01:05:01,480 --> 01:05:04,080
frequently disregarded in 
contemporary discussions of 

1251
01:05:04,080 --> 01:05:06,520
Greek theatre. 
They were talented performers 

1252
01:05:06,520 --> 01:05:08,960
who represented the voice of the
community in the play by 

1253
01:05:08,960 --> 01:05:11,400
dancing, singing and commenting 
on the action. 

1254
01:05:11,960 --> 01:05:13,760
They weren't merely background 
singers. 

1255
01:05:14,160 --> 01:05:17,520
A production success or failure 
depended on its chorus, and 

1256
01:05:17,520 --> 01:05:19,880
training one required months of 
rigorous rehearsal. 

1257
01:05:20,200 --> 01:05:23,240
When the Romans saw Greek 
theatre they thought, this is 

1258
01:05:23,240 --> 01:05:26,760
nice, but what if we made it 
bigger, more spectacular, and 

1259
01:05:26,760 --> 01:05:29,840
threw in some gladiators? 
Because if the Romans were good 

1260
01:05:29,840 --> 01:05:32,800
at anything, it was taking 
someone else's brilliant idea 

1261
01:05:32,800 --> 01:05:36,200
and making it much better, with 
more marble, more violence and 

1262
01:05:36,200 --> 01:05:39,280
much better engineering. 
Roman theatre was entertainment 

1263
01:05:39,280 --> 01:05:41,520
on a scale that would make 
contemporary production 

1264
01:05:41,880 --> 01:05:43,960
companies shiver with fear and 
jealousy. 

1265
01:05:44,520 --> 01:05:47,440
They constructed massive 
theatres, some of which could 

1266
01:05:47,440 --> 01:05:51,000
accommodate up to 40,000 people.
Can you imagine packing a 

1267
01:05:51,000 --> 01:05:53,720
theatre that big today for a 
single dramatic performance 

1268
01:05:54,080 --> 01:05:56,440
rather than a sporting event or 
rock concert? 

1269
01:05:56,800 --> 01:06:00,400
Rome's 20,000 seat Theatre of 
Marcellus was so exquisitely 

1270
01:06:00,400 --> 01:06:03,880
designed that portions of it 
still stand today and are used 

1271
01:06:03,880 --> 01:06:06,680
as the base for Renaissance 
palaces that were erected on its

1272
01:06:06,720 --> 01:06:09,080
remains. 
The Romans changed theatrical 

1273
01:06:09,080 --> 01:06:11,680
technology in ways that would 
not be matched until the modern 

1274
01:06:11,680 --> 01:06:13,600
era, but they didn't stop its 
size. 

1275
01:06:14,000 --> 01:06:16,760
They featured elaborate set 
pieces that could be changed 

1276
01:06:16,760 --> 01:06:19,680
between acts using sophisticated
machinery hidden beneath the 

1277
01:06:19,680 --> 01:06:23,200
stage floor, hoists that could 
lift actors into the air to 

1278
01:06:23,200 --> 01:06:26,240
represent gods or flying 
creatures, and trap doors that 

1279
01:06:26,240 --> 01:06:29,160
were controlled by intricate 
mechanical systems. 

1280
01:06:29,440 --> 01:06:31,680
Special effects that wouldn't 
look out of place in a 

1281
01:06:31,680 --> 01:06:34,480
contemporary theme park. 
Roman theatre engineering 

1282
01:06:34,480 --> 01:06:37,480
produced the first retractable 
awnings to shield spectators 

1283
01:06:37,480 --> 01:06:41,120
from the sun and rain, intricate
subterranean spaces beneath the 

1284
01:06:41,120 --> 01:06:44,200
stage for the storage of 
equipment and sets, and even 

1285
01:06:44,200 --> 01:06:47,440
crude air conditioners that 
cooled the air on hot days using

1286
01:06:47,440 --> 01:06:50,120
aqueduct water. 
Instead of relying on ideal 

1287
01:06:50,120 --> 01:06:53,160
weather, they made going to the 
theatre a cozy year round 

1288
01:06:53,160 --> 01:06:55,640
activity. 
From a social point of view, 

1289
01:06:55,920 --> 01:06:58,760
this is where Roman theatre 
becomes truly fascinating. 

1290
01:06:59,160 --> 01:07:01,800
The Romans viewed theatre more 
like we do television today, 

1291
01:07:02,320 --> 01:07:05,120
popular entertainment for the 
masses, supported by the 

1292
01:07:05,120 --> 01:07:08,040
government or wealthy sponsors 
and intended to keep the 

1293
01:07:08,040 --> 01:07:11,440
populist content and distracted.
This is in contrast to the 

1294
01:07:11,440 --> 01:07:14,840
Greeks, who saw theatre as both 
entertainment and a spiritual 

1295
01:07:14,840 --> 01:07:17,240
experience connected to 
religious festivals. 

1296
01:07:17,760 --> 01:07:20,720
Free admission was provided by 
wealthy individuals seeking 

1297
01:07:20,720 --> 01:07:24,280
social status or politicians 
hoping to win over voters. 

1298
01:07:24,640 --> 01:07:28,040
The shows had to be suitable for
everyone from senators to dock 

1299
01:07:28,040 --> 01:07:31,320
workers in order to appeal to 
the widest possible audience. 

1300
01:07:31,720 --> 01:07:34,200
This democratic approach to 
entertainment gave rise to 

1301
01:07:34,200 --> 01:07:37,240
storytelling innovations that 
put mass appeal ahead of 

1302
01:07:37,240 --> 01:07:40,200
creative experimentation. 
The clever servant who was 

1303
01:07:40,200 --> 01:07:42,880
always smarter than his master, 
the young lover who was 

1304
01:07:42,880 --> 01:07:46,120
attractive but not very 
intelligent, the irascible old 

1305
01:07:46,120 --> 01:07:49,760
man whose stinginess caused most
of the plot complications, and 

1306
01:07:49,760 --> 01:07:53,080
the cunning parasite who 
flattered wealthy patrons in 

1307
01:07:53,080 --> 01:07:55,880
exchange for food and favours 
were all examples of stock 

1308
01:07:55,880 --> 01:07:59,040
characters that audiences would 
instantly recognize in Roman 

1309
01:07:59,040 --> 01:08:01,000
comedies. 
Does that sound familiar? 

1310
01:08:01,600 --> 01:08:04,440
Even today, these character 
types can be found in sitcoms 

1311
01:08:04,440 --> 01:08:07,360
and romantic comedies. 
The ensemble comedy model that 

1312
01:08:07,360 --> 01:08:10,760
we still use today, 2000 years 
later, was essentially 

1313
01:08:10,760 --> 01:08:13,960
established by the Romans. 
It is impossible to overestimate

1314
01:08:13,960 --> 01:08:16,479
the impact of Roman comedy on 
subsequent theatrical 

1315
01:08:16,479 --> 01:08:18,880
traditions. 
Throughout the Middle Ages and 

1316
01:08:18,880 --> 01:08:21,920
into the Renaissance, plays by 
Plautus and Terence were studied

1317
01:08:21,920 --> 01:08:23,880
and copied. 
Shakespeare directly 

1318
01:08:23,880 --> 01:08:26,600
appropriated Roman storylines 
and character types. 

1319
01:08:26,920 --> 01:08:29,399
Roman theatre is the source of 
the fundamental framework of 

1320
01:08:29,399 --> 01:08:32,800
romantic comedy, which consists 
of young lovers kept apart by 

1321
01:08:32,800 --> 01:08:36,160
obstacles, complications 
involving mistaken identities, 

1322
01:08:36,520 --> 01:08:38,760
and a resolution in which 
everyone gets married. 

1323
01:08:39,040 --> 01:08:42,560
However, the idea of theatre as 
a spectacle for public amusement

1324
01:08:42,560 --> 01:08:46,359
was also invented by the Romans.
Their successful productions 

1325
01:08:46,359 --> 01:08:49,720
travelled from city to city 
across the empire, establishing 

1326
01:08:49,720 --> 01:08:52,760
the first theatrical touring 
circuit to bring professional 

1327
01:08:52,760 --> 01:08:55,520
entertainment to provincial 
towns that might never otherwise

1328
01:08:55,520 --> 01:08:58,160
see anything more sophisticated 
than local festivals. 

1329
01:08:58,720 --> 01:09:01,479
Picture the logistics of 
transporting entire acting 

1330
01:09:01,479 --> 01:09:05,520
companies, elaborate sets and 
costumes across hundreds of 

1331
01:09:05,760 --> 01:09:08,880
miles of Roman roads. 
Roman audiences were infamously 

1332
01:09:08,880 --> 01:09:10,920
picky and outspoken about what 
they liked. 

1333
01:09:11,560 --> 01:09:14,439
They had no qualms about vocally
and instantly expressing their 

1334
01:09:14,439 --> 01:09:16,640
disapproval if they didn't enjoy
a performance. 

1335
01:09:17,000 --> 01:09:19,560
Both positive and negative 
effects on the development of 

1336
01:09:19,560 --> 01:09:22,800
theatre resulted from this, as 
it established a culture in 

1337
01:09:22,800 --> 01:09:25,800
which popularity and 
entertainment value were valued 

1338
01:09:25,800 --> 01:09:27,640
more highly than artistic 
ambition. 

1339
01:09:28,080 --> 01:09:30,920
The first celebrity culture 
centred on performers was also 

1340
01:09:30,920 --> 01:09:34,319
created by the Romans. 
Actors who achieved success 

1341
01:09:34,319 --> 01:09:37,200
became well known throughout the
empire, and rumors and 

1342
01:09:37,200 --> 01:09:39,399
conjecture surrounded their 
private lives. 

1343
01:09:39,960 --> 01:09:42,640
Does that sound familiar? 
They invented the idea of a 

1344
01:09:42,640 --> 01:09:45,560
touring star who could attract 
audiences just by virtue of 

1345
01:09:45,560 --> 01:09:49,200
their reputation going from city
to city to play their most well 

1346
01:09:49,200 --> 01:09:51,720
liked parts. 
You might assume that theatre 

1347
01:09:51,720 --> 01:09:54,720
Simply put on its masks and went
home for a few centuries after 

1348
01:09:54,720 --> 01:09:57,520
the fall of Rome. 
It had to be extremely inventive

1349
01:09:57,520 --> 01:10:00,480
about where it lived and how it 
survived, but not quite. 

1350
01:10:00,920 --> 01:10:03,560
The early Christian Church had 
conflicting opinions about 

1351
01:10:03,560 --> 01:10:06,320
theatrical performances. 
On the one hand, they 

1352
01:10:06,360 --> 01:10:09,600
disapproved of Roman theatres, 
connection to violence, Pagan 

1353
01:10:09,600 --> 01:10:11,880
festivals, and general 
immorality. 

1354
01:10:12,240 --> 01:10:15,000
However, they soon discovered 
that religious stories could be 

1355
01:10:15,000 --> 01:10:17,320
effectively taught through 
performance to those who are 

1356
01:10:17,320 --> 01:10:20,120
illiterate, which was the 
majority of the population. 

1357
01:10:20,480 --> 01:10:23,720
As a result, theatre found a new
home in churches, beginning with

1358
01:10:23,720 --> 01:10:26,720
straightforward Bible story 
reenactments during services. 

1359
01:10:27,040 --> 01:10:29,560
Imagine that during Easter 
morning services, members of the

1360
01:10:29,560 --> 01:10:32,160
congregation would pretend that 
Christ's empty tomb had been 

1361
01:10:32,160 --> 01:10:34,160
discovered. 
This would likely involve 

1362
01:10:34,160 --> 01:10:37,040
improvised costumes and a good 
deal of nervous laughter from 

1363
01:10:37,040 --> 01:10:39,800
amateur actors who had never 
performed on stage before. 

1364
01:10:40,120 --> 01:10:42,960
Since Latin, the Church's 
official language, was typically

1365
01:10:42,960 --> 01:10:46,240
used for these early liturgical 
dramas, the majority of the 

1366
01:10:46,240 --> 01:10:49,160
audience was more interested in 
the spectacle than in fully 

1367
01:10:49,160 --> 01:10:52,320
comprehending every word. 
This resulted in increasingly 

1368
01:10:52,320 --> 01:10:56,080
complex visual presentations 
that use staging, costume, and 

1369
01:10:56,080 --> 01:10:59,160
action rather than speech to 
convey narrative and emotion. 

1370
01:10:59,520 --> 01:11:02,520
The Easter story was briefly 
dramatized in the chem kiritus 

1371
01:11:02,520 --> 01:11:06,000
trope, which is frequently cited
as the origin of all medieval 

1372
01:11:06,000 --> 01:11:08,160
drama. 
It began as a straightforward 

1373
01:11:08,160 --> 01:11:10,800
call and response between a 
clergyman who represented the 

1374
01:11:10,800 --> 01:11:13,960
Angel at the tomb and another 
clergyman who represented the 

1375
01:11:13,960 --> 01:11:17,040
three Mary's searching for 
Christ's body, Jesus of 

1376
01:11:17,040 --> 01:11:19,840
Nazareth. 
He is not here, He is risen. 

1377
01:11:20,320 --> 01:11:23,680
Whom do you seek? 
This is where medieval theatre 

1378
01:11:23,680 --> 01:11:26,120
becomes wonderfully human and 
charmingly chaotic. 

1379
01:11:26,680 --> 01:11:29,320
These religious performances 
outgrew the churches as they 

1380
01:11:29,320 --> 01:11:31,160
became more elaborate and well 
liked. 

1381
01:11:31,480 --> 01:11:34,800
Entire communities participated 
in large scale productions known

1382
01:11:34,800 --> 01:11:37,960
as morality plays, which were 
essentially medieval after 

1383
01:11:37,960 --> 01:11:41,080
school specials with titles like
Every Man and The Castle of 

1384
01:11:41,080 --> 01:11:45,000
Perseverance, or mystery plays 
which told biblical stories. 

1385
01:11:45,400 --> 01:11:47,880
These local productions were 
pulled by wagons known as 

1386
01:11:47,880 --> 01:11:51,240
pageant wagons, which would move
around a town, stopping at 

1387
01:11:51,240 --> 01:11:54,360
various stations during the day.
The carpenters would be in 

1388
01:11:54,360 --> 01:11:57,720
charge of Noah's Ark, naturally,
the bakers would be in charge of

1389
01:11:57,720 --> 01:12:00,600
the Miracle of the Loaves and 
fishes, the metal workers would 

1390
01:12:00,600 --> 01:12:03,840
likely be stuck with any scenes 
that required armor or weapons, 

1391
01:12:04,160 --> 01:12:07,080
and the goldsmith's Guild would 
usually be in charge of the 

1392
01:12:07,080 --> 01:12:09,920
scenes involving the three wise 
men and their pricey gifts. 

1393
01:12:10,240 --> 01:12:12,720
Part of what made medieval 
theatre so charming was that the

1394
01:12:12,720 --> 01:12:14,840
outcomes were frequently 
hilariously uneven. 

1395
01:12:15,160 --> 01:12:17,960
Imagine going to a play where 
Noah's Ark was constructed by 

1396
01:12:17,960 --> 01:12:21,960
real carpenters and looked 
amazing, And then right after 

1397
01:12:21,960 --> 01:12:24,480
that there's a scene where the 
angels are obviously just the 

1398
01:12:24,480 --> 01:12:27,760
apprentices of the Baker, 
dressed in bed sheets, and 

1399
01:12:27,760 --> 01:12:30,680
they're desperately trying not 
to trip over their makeshift 

1400
01:12:30,680 --> 01:12:32,920
wings. 
For one day's performance, the 

1401
01:12:32,920 --> 01:12:35,200
Guild of Shipwrights would make 
an ark that could actually 

1402
01:12:35,200 --> 01:12:38,360
float, the Guild of Weavers 
might make costumes that were 

1403
01:12:38,360 --> 01:12:42,000
works of art, and the Guild of 
Blacksmiths would forge armor 

1404
01:12:42,000 --> 01:12:44,840
that was entirely authentic. 
The way that medieval 

1405
01:12:44,840 --> 01:12:47,440
performance combined the sacred 
and the ridiculous without 

1406
01:12:47,440 --> 01:12:50,640
seeming to care about tonal 
consistency was one of its most 

1407
01:12:50,640 --> 01:12:53,600
delightful features. 
Comic Relief characters would 

1408
01:12:53,600 --> 01:12:56,920
appear everywhere, even in the 
most religious productions. 

1409
01:12:57,280 --> 01:13:00,200
In nativity plays, the shepherds
were frequently portrayed as 

1410
01:13:00,200 --> 01:13:03,160
foolish country people who 
offered amusement in between the

1411
01:13:03,160 --> 01:13:05,960
more somber scenes. 
In the midst of a tale about 

1412
01:13:05,960 --> 01:13:09,440
divine judgement and salvation, 
there is slapstick humor because

1413
01:13:09,440 --> 01:13:12,840
Noah's wife was traditionally A 
shrewish character who refused 

1414
01:13:12,840 --> 01:13:14,480
to board the ark without a 
fight. 

1415
01:13:14,800 --> 01:13:17,240
One of the most well known 
medieval dramas, The Second 

1416
01:13:17,240 --> 01:13:20,320
Shepherd's Play, has a subplot 
about a sheep thief who attempts

1417
01:13:20,320 --> 01:13:23,520
to conceal his stolen sheep by 
posing it as his newborn child, 

1418
01:13:24,160 --> 01:13:27,440
with his wife cradling it and 
saying it only has a peculiar 

1419
01:13:27,720 --> 01:13:30,080
complexion. 
This farce parallels the 

1420
01:13:30,080 --> 01:13:33,680
Nativity story, resulting in a 
play that serves as both popular

1421
01:13:33,680 --> 01:13:35,600
entertainment and religious 
instruction. 

1422
01:13:36,000 --> 01:13:38,920
We sometimes forget that 
medieval audiences recognize 

1423
01:13:38,920 --> 01:13:41,720
that a little humor helped make 
difficult spiritual subjects 

1424
01:13:41,760 --> 01:13:43,840
easier to understand and more 
memorable. 

1425
01:13:44,400 --> 01:13:47,080
They were being pragmatic, not 
disrespectful. 

1426
01:13:47,440 --> 01:13:49,720
You need to give them something 
to laugh at and something to 

1427
01:13:49,720 --> 01:13:52,040
think about if you want them to 
remember the lessons in your 

1428
01:13:52,040 --> 01:13:55,080
play. 
Medieval drama was staged in a 

1429
01:13:55,080 --> 01:13:57,280
way that was both inventive and 
useful. 

1430
01:13:57,720 --> 01:13:59,920
The majority of performances 
were held outside in 

1431
01:13:59,920 --> 01:14:03,720
marketplaces or town squares, so
portable and weatherproof stage 

1432
01:14:03,720 --> 01:14:06,760
designs were required. 
The Pageant wagon system made it

1433
01:14:06,760 --> 01:14:09,680
possible for several plays to be
presented at various venues at 

1434
01:14:09,680 --> 01:14:12,920
the same time, resulting in a 
festival like atmosphere that 

1435
01:14:12,920 --> 01:14:16,800
persisted for days. 
Some communities created staging

1436
01:14:16,800 --> 01:14:19,960
systems that were even more 
complex in order to follow the 

1437
01:14:19,960 --> 01:14:22,680
entire biblical story from 
creation to Judgement Day. 

1438
01:14:23,200 --> 01:14:26,280
Audiences moved between the 
Chester Mystery Plays, which 

1439
01:14:26,280 --> 01:14:29,160
were presented on a number of 
fixed stages spread out across 

1440
01:14:29,160 --> 01:14:32,520
the city in order to create 
enormous outdoor festivals that 

1441
01:14:32,520 --> 01:14:34,840
attracted people from hundreds 
of miles away. 

1442
01:14:35,240 --> 01:14:38,280
Other communities constructed 
makeshift amphitheatres in 

1443
01:14:38,280 --> 01:14:41,520
fields outside of town. 
Theatrical aspirations grew in 

1444
01:14:41,520 --> 01:14:45,200
tandem with the prosperity of 
medieval society and the size of

1445
01:14:45,200 --> 01:14:48,320
urban centres. 
Productions became more complex 

1446
01:14:48,320 --> 01:14:51,800
in the 14th and 15th centuries, 
pushing the limits of what was 

1447
01:14:51,800 --> 01:14:53,520
possible with medieval 
technology. 

1448
01:14:53,880 --> 01:14:56,560
Hundreds of actors and crew 
members participated in these 

1449
01:14:56,560 --> 01:14:59,520
enormous multi day Passion plays
during this time period. 

1450
01:15:00,240 --> 01:15:02,840
We can get a sense of the scale 
these productions could reach 

1451
01:15:02,840 --> 01:15:06,680
from the 1634 started 
Oberammergau Passion Play. 

1452
01:15:07,000 --> 01:15:09,880
Medieval adaptations were 
frequently even more ornate, 

1453
01:15:10,440 --> 01:15:14,360
with casts that included entire 
communities, numerous stages, 

1454
01:15:14,600 --> 01:15:16,920
and sophisticated special 
effects equipment. 

1455
01:15:17,600 --> 01:15:21,400
The technology used for staging 
advanced biblical miracles were 

1456
01:15:21,400 --> 01:15:24,560
cleverly addressed by medieval 
stage managers, who created 

1457
01:15:24,600 --> 01:15:28,480
intricate mechanisms for parting
seas or simulating divine fire, 

1458
01:15:28,880 --> 01:15:32,200
flying rigs for angelic 
appearances, and trap doors for 

1459
01:15:32,200 --> 01:15:35,120
resurrection scenes. 
Medieval stage designers 

1460
01:15:35,120 --> 01:15:37,720
developed a speciality for 
depicting the mouth of Hell, 

1461
01:15:38,200 --> 01:15:41,200
which is frequently a massive 
dragon head with a movable jaw 

1462
01:15:41,560 --> 01:15:44,680
that can swallow the damned 
while belching smoke and flames.

1463
01:15:45,040 --> 01:15:47,840
Medieval theatre had a 
significant economic component. 

1464
01:15:48,440 --> 01:15:51,840
Investing heavily in costumes, 
materials, and specialized craft

1465
01:15:51,840 --> 01:15:54,040
work was necessary for large 
productions. 

1466
01:15:54,400 --> 01:15:57,280
Guilds would train for their 
designated scenes for months, 

1467
01:15:57,600 --> 01:16:00,560
and the rivalry between them to 
produce the best show became a 

1468
01:16:00,560 --> 01:16:03,880
source of artistic innovation 
and civic pride. 

1469
01:16:04,280 --> 01:16:07,640
According to records from York, 
England, the mystery play cycle 

1470
01:16:07,640 --> 01:16:10,880
in the city involves 48 
different wagons and most of the

1471
01:16:10,880 --> 01:16:14,520
adult population as organizers, 
craftspeople or performers. 

1472
01:16:14,920 --> 01:16:18,160
The plays economic impact was so
great that they became popular 

1473
01:16:18,160 --> 01:16:21,240
tourist destinations, bringing 
in large sums of money for 

1474
01:16:21,240 --> 01:16:25,240
nearby merchants and innkeepers.
Humanism, literacy, and the 

1475
01:16:25,240 --> 01:16:28,360
radical notion that perhaps, 
just possibly, the average 

1476
01:16:28,360 --> 01:16:31,040
person should have access to 
entertainment that wasn't solely

1477
01:16:31,040 --> 01:16:34,320
concerned with their eternal 
souls and moral advancement were

1478
01:16:34,320 --> 01:16:36,000
all introduced during the 
Renaissance. 

1479
01:16:36,360 --> 01:16:39,520
Professional theatre as we know 
it began during this time with 

1480
01:16:39,520 --> 01:16:42,800
permanent companies, specially 
constructed theatres, and the 

1481
01:16:42,800 --> 01:16:45,840
ground breaking idea that actors
could earn a living doing what 

1482
01:16:45,840 --> 01:16:48,600
they did without having to 
become carpenters or farmers. 

1483
01:16:49,000 --> 01:16:52,320
With stock characters that wore 
recognizable masks and costumes 

1484
01:16:52,320 --> 01:16:55,240
that have become so iconic that 
they are still instantly 

1485
01:16:55,240 --> 01:16:58,360
recognizable today. 
The Comedia de Latte in Italy 

1486
01:16:58,360 --> 01:17:02,240
was perfecting improvisational 
comedy with exaggerated features

1487
01:17:02,240 --> 01:17:05,320
that allowed actors to project 
personality even to audiences 

1488
01:17:05,320 --> 01:17:07,880
seated close enough to see their
eyes through the masks eye 

1489
01:17:07,880 --> 01:17:10,280
holes. 
These were not your sombre Greek

1490
01:17:10,280 --> 01:17:13,680
masks made to project emotion 
across enormous amphitheatres. 

1491
01:17:14,080 --> 01:17:16,000
Instead, they were made for 
intimate comedy. 

1492
01:17:16,320 --> 01:17:20,040
The fundamental character types 
Pantalone, the wealthy old 

1493
01:17:20,040 --> 01:17:22,720
merchant who was constantly 
being conned out of his money. 

1494
01:17:23,400 --> 01:17:26,680
El Capitano, the blustery 
soldier who talked endlessly 

1495
01:17:26,680 --> 01:17:29,800
about his military exploits but 
turned out to be a coward when 

1496
01:17:29,800 --> 01:17:33,760
faced with real danger. 
Alequino, the cunning servant 

1497
01:17:33,760 --> 01:17:36,000
who was always smarter than his 
supposed betters. 

1498
01:17:36,400 --> 01:17:38,920
And the young lovers, who were 
typically beautiful but not 

1499
01:17:38,920 --> 01:17:42,440
particularly blessed with common
sense, became so popular that 

1500
01:17:42,440 --> 01:17:45,400
they spread throughout Europe 
more quickly than Renaissance 

1501
01:17:45,400 --> 01:17:48,280
pasta recipes. 
Comedia de latte is especially 

1502
01:17:48,280 --> 01:17:51,360
endearing because, although the 
fundamental storylines and 

1503
01:17:51,360 --> 01:17:54,320
character types were the same 
for all acting companies, a 

1504
01:17:54,360 --> 01:17:56,640
large portion of the dialogue 
was improvised. 

1505
01:17:57,000 --> 01:17:59,120
Over the course of years or even
decades. 

1506
01:17:59,400 --> 01:18:01,880
Actors would hone their 
characters, coming up with 

1507
01:18:01,880 --> 01:18:05,920
unique vocal patterns, physical 
gestures, and running jokes that

1508
01:18:05,920 --> 01:18:09,160
viewers would find entertaining.
The audience expected the same 

1509
01:18:09,160 --> 01:18:12,040
characters to appear in each 
performance, albeit with 

1510
01:18:12,040 --> 01:18:15,440
slightly different circumstances
and complications, so it was 

1511
01:18:15,440 --> 01:18:17,320
similar to watching a 
Renaissance take on 

1512
01:18:17,320 --> 01:18:20,440
improvisational comedy. 
The basic plot outlines or 

1513
01:18:20,440 --> 01:18:23,560
scenarios were handed down from 
one company to another and grew 

1514
01:18:23,560 --> 01:18:26,880
more complex. 
Mistaken identities, young 

1515
01:18:26,880 --> 01:18:30,200
lovers attempting to outsmart 
their parents, servants who were

1516
01:18:30,200 --> 01:18:33,360
simultaneously assisting and 
impeding their masters, and 

1517
01:18:33,360 --> 01:18:36,440
enough physical humour to keep 
audiences laughing even when 

1518
01:18:36,440 --> 01:18:39,320
they couldn't fully follow the 
plot complications are all 

1519
01:18:39,320 --> 01:18:41,920
common elements of comedian de 
latte performances. 

1520
01:18:42,240 --> 01:18:45,400
With their own costumes, props, 
musical instruments and 

1521
01:18:45,400 --> 01:18:48,320
specialized equipment for 
outdoor performances, these 

1522
01:18:48,320 --> 01:18:50,920
travelling companies were 
effectively small businesses. 

1523
01:18:51,280 --> 01:18:54,000
They kept their main character 
types and scenarios while 

1524
01:18:54,000 --> 01:18:56,640
travelling from town to town, 
throughout Italy and eventually 

1525
01:18:56,640 --> 01:18:59,880
throughout Europe, tailoring 
their performances to local 

1526
01:18:59,880 --> 01:19:02,760
languages and tastes. 
At the same time, something 

1527
01:19:02,760 --> 01:19:05,600
remarkable was taking place in 
England that would forever alter

1528
01:19:05,600 --> 01:19:07,240
the field of theatrical 
literature. 

1529
01:19:07,600 --> 01:19:10,720
However, let's face it, 
Elizabethan theatre was not the 

1530
01:19:10,720 --> 01:19:13,480
reverent, hushed experience you 
might expect from something we 

1531
01:19:13,480 --> 01:19:15,920
now study with such academic 
seriousness. 

1532
01:19:16,320 --> 01:19:19,120
The Elizabethan era produced 
what many consider the greatest 

1533
01:19:19,120 --> 01:19:21,600
flowering of dramatic literature
in the English language. 

1534
01:19:21,960 --> 01:19:24,680
Unlike the calm, reflective 
settings we now associate with 

1535
01:19:24,680 --> 01:19:28,520
serious drama, Elizabethan 
theatres were noisy, boisterous 

1536
01:19:28,520 --> 01:19:31,760
spaces that functioned more like
a hybrid of a social club and a 

1537
01:19:31,760 --> 01:19:33,880
sporting event. 
Because they were on ground 

1538
01:19:33,880 --> 01:19:36,560
level, the audience, known as 
Groundlings, stood in the pit 

1539
01:19:36,600 --> 01:19:39,960
and felt completely free to 
applaud heroes, hiss, villains 

1540
01:19:40,200 --> 01:19:42,600
and hurl objects at performers 
they didn't like. 

1541
01:19:42,960 --> 01:19:45,320
In general, they treated the 
performance as an interactive 

1542
01:19:45,320 --> 01:19:47,800
experience. 
They consumed food while the 

1543
01:19:47,800 --> 01:19:50,720
show was going on. 
Vendors offered beer, apples and

1544
01:19:50,720 --> 01:19:52,800
nuts. 
They went to the theatre to see 

1545
01:19:52,800 --> 01:19:56,080
and be seen in London. 
Society made business deals and 

1546
01:19:56,080 --> 01:19:57,960
flirted with possible love 
interests. 

1547
01:19:58,280 --> 01:20:01,200
They told the actors bluntly if 
a play was dull, sometimes to 

1548
01:20:01,200 --> 01:20:04,400
the extent that actors would act
out of character to argue with 

1549
01:20:04,400 --> 01:20:07,120
loud audience members. 
Within the limitations of 

1550
01:20:07,120 --> 01:20:09,920
Elizabethan economics and 
technology, the theatres 

1551
01:20:09,920 --> 01:20:12,400
themselves were marvels of 
practical design. 

1552
01:20:13,080 --> 01:20:16,200
They were open to the sky in the
middle, so performances relied 

1553
01:20:16,200 --> 01:20:18,200
on favourable weather and 
natural light. 

1554
01:20:18,600 --> 01:20:21,160
They were mostly made of wood 
and had thatched roofs. 

1555
01:20:21,480 --> 01:20:24,520
Fire was a constant worry. 
The Globe Theatre burned down in

1556
01:20:24,520 --> 01:20:28,160
1613 when a Canon effect went 
wrong during a performance of 

1557
01:20:28,160 --> 01:20:30,600
Henry the Eighth. 
The weather and daylight hours 

1558
01:20:30,600 --> 01:20:32,320
dictated the performance 
schedules. 

1559
01:20:32,720 --> 01:20:36,040
Winter meant earlier start times
or shorter plays, even though 

1560
01:20:36,040 --> 01:20:39,000
some theatres had enough covered
seating to continue with smaller

1561
01:20:39,000 --> 01:20:41,880
audiences during light 
precipitation, rain could 

1562
01:20:41,880 --> 01:20:45,560
completely cancel performances. 
It was a straightforward yet 

1563
01:20:45,600 --> 01:20:49,240
elegant stage design, an 
intimacy that is hard to attain 

1564
01:20:49,240 --> 01:20:52,040
in contemporary proscenium 
theatres where the audience is 

1565
01:20:52,040 --> 01:20:55,800
seated on one side of the action
was created by the main platform

1566
01:20:55,800 --> 01:20:58,960
protruding into the audience. 
Hamlet stood a few feet away 

1567
01:20:58,960 --> 01:21:01,800
from some audience members 
during the soliloquies, allowing

1568
01:21:01,800 --> 01:21:04,400
him to observe their distinct 
faces and determine how they 

1569
01:21:04,400 --> 01:21:07,320
responded to his remarks. 
Depending on the needs of the 

1570
01:21:07,320 --> 01:21:10,320
play, the gallery above the 
mainstage could symbolize 

1571
01:21:10,320 --> 01:21:12,480
heaven, castle walls or 
balconies. 

1572
01:21:13,120 --> 01:21:16,360
Trapdoors allowed supernatural 
characters to emerge from hell. 

1573
01:21:16,680 --> 01:21:19,600
A space beneath the stage. 
There was a curtained space 

1574
01:21:19,600 --> 01:21:22,880
behind the stage that could be 
used as a cave and inner room or

1575
01:21:22,880 --> 01:21:24,360
anything else the script called 
for. 

1576
01:21:24,680 --> 01:21:27,360
These theatres relied on the 
imagination of the audience and 

1577
01:21:27,360 --> 01:21:30,560
the playwright's words to create
atmosphere and location because 

1578
01:21:30,560 --> 01:21:33,480
they had little scenery and no 
lighting effects. 

1579
01:21:34,120 --> 01:21:37,320
You're aware that we would 
eventually arrive. 400 years 

1580
01:21:37,320 --> 01:21:40,320
later, high school students 
still complain about having to 

1581
01:21:40,320 --> 01:21:43,360
read William Shakespeare, and 
theatre professionals are still 

1582
01:21:43,360 --> 01:21:46,080
trying to understand how he was 
able to be so consistently 

1583
01:21:46,080 --> 01:21:49,840
brilliant while managing a 
theatre company and likely 

1584
01:21:49,840 --> 01:21:53,080
worrying about paying the rent. 
Shakespeare was writing popular 

1585
01:21:53,080 --> 01:21:56,320
entertainment for a wide range 
of readers, not literature for 

1586
01:21:56,320 --> 01:21:59,440
future English classes. 
This is the aspect of 

1587
01:21:59,440 --> 01:22:02,160
Shakespeare that is frequently 
overlooked in all the scholarly 

1588
01:22:02,160 --> 01:22:05,520
analysis and reverent treatment.
He worked as a playwright in a 

1589
01:22:05,520 --> 01:22:09,160
fiercely competitive commercial 
theatre setting, producing plays

1590
01:22:09,160 --> 01:22:12,840
on short notice for audiences 
who could not stand pretence and

1591
01:22:12,840 --> 01:22:15,480
who had plenty of other things 
to do if his productions didn't 

1592
01:22:15,480 --> 01:22:18,320
hold their attention. 
Shakespeare's genius lay in his 

1593
01:22:18,320 --> 01:22:21,440
ability to work on several 
levels at once without making 

1594
01:22:21,440 --> 01:22:23,560
anyone feel condescending or 
excluded. 

1595
01:22:23,760 --> 01:22:26,480
Sword fights, puns, and obscene 
jokes that would make a 

1596
01:22:26,480 --> 01:22:29,440
contemporary R rating committee 
blush were all part of the 

1597
01:22:29,440 --> 01:22:32,000
experience for the groundlings 
who paid a penny to stand in the

1598
01:22:32,000 --> 01:22:34,560
pit. 
Sophisticated word play, 

1599
01:22:34,760 --> 01:22:38,640
classical references, and 
intricate psychological insights

1600
01:22:38,640 --> 01:22:41,560
that unveiled new layers upon 
repeated viewing were provided 

1601
01:22:41,560 --> 01:22:44,520
to the educated nobility who 
paid more for seats in the 

1602
01:22:44,520 --> 01:22:47,000
galleries. 
Everyone heard gripping tales of

1603
01:22:47,000 --> 01:22:51,080
betrayal, power struggles, love,
dysfunctional families, and the 

1604
01:22:51,080 --> 01:22:54,240
sporadic appearance of ghosts to
add even more difficulty to an 

1605
01:22:54,240 --> 01:22:56,120
already challenging 
circumstance. 

1606
01:22:56,400 --> 01:22:59,560
His comedies, which were full of
misidentifications, cross 

1607
01:22:59,560 --> 01:23:02,960
dressing characters, romantic 
confusion that degenerates into 

1608
01:23:02,960 --> 01:23:05,880
delightful chaos, and the kind 
of word play that makes you 

1609
01:23:05,880 --> 01:23:09,160
laugh and moan at the same time,
were truly funny in ways that 

1610
01:23:09,160 --> 01:23:12,080
are still relevant today. 
With a villain plot that 

1611
01:23:12,080 --> 01:23:14,440
primarily provides the other 
characters with interesting 

1612
01:23:14,440 --> 01:23:17,920
things to react to and enough 
clever dialogue to fuel several 

1613
01:23:17,920 --> 01:23:21,880
contemporary sitcoms, Much Ado 
About Nothing is essentially a 

1614
01:23:21,880 --> 01:23:25,160
romantic comedy about two 
couples who approach love from 

1615
01:23:25,160 --> 01:23:28,640
entirely different perspectives.
His history has transformed dull

1616
01:23:28,640 --> 01:23:31,800
political events, which the 
majority of his audience only 

1617
01:23:31,800 --> 01:23:35,200
knew in passing, into exciting 
adventures full of endearing 

1618
01:23:35,200 --> 01:23:38,440
characters who seemed more real 
than the historical figures they

1619
01:23:38,440 --> 01:23:41,840
purportedly represented. 
Through stirring battle speeches

1620
01:23:41,840 --> 01:23:45,120
and character interactions, 
Henry the Fifth turns a medieval

1621
01:23:45,120 --> 01:23:47,680
military campaign into a 
reflection on leadership, 

1622
01:23:48,120 --> 01:23:50,960
accountability and the price of 
political ambition. 

1623
01:23:51,360 --> 01:23:54,040
This keeps audiences interested,
even if they are not very 

1624
01:23:54,040 --> 01:23:56,840
interested in English foreign 
policy in the 14th century. 

1625
01:23:57,200 --> 01:24:01,440
And his misfortunes? 
Yes, they are tragic, but in the

1626
01:24:01,440 --> 01:24:03,160
most fulfilling sense of the 
word. 

1627
01:24:03,560 --> 01:24:07,880
They deal with major themes like
fate, ambition, love, and 

1628
01:24:07,880 --> 01:24:11,800
retribution, but they do so by 
showing flawed, complex 

1629
01:24:11,800 --> 01:24:15,240
characters making decisions that
have terrible outcomes. 

1630
01:24:15,600 --> 01:24:18,120
In addition to being a play 
about a Prince who must exact 

1631
01:24:18,120 --> 01:24:21,760
revenge on his father, Hamlet is
also about a person attempting 

1632
01:24:21,760 --> 01:24:25,240
to live honourably in a corrupt 
society and how the quest for 

1633
01:24:25,240 --> 01:24:28,240
perfect justice can destroy 
everything you're attempting to 

1634
01:24:28,240 --> 01:24:30,440
defend. 
Shakespeare's comprehension of 

1635
01:24:30,440 --> 01:24:33,760
human psychology and all its 
contradictory complexity was 

1636
01:24:33,760 --> 01:24:37,040
what truly made him unique. 
Because his characters, like 

1637
01:24:37,040 --> 01:24:39,400
real people, have internal 
contradictions. 

1638
01:24:39,720 --> 01:24:43,120
They seem authentic, frequently 
in the same scene, Hamlet 

1639
01:24:43,120 --> 01:24:46,480
exhibits both decisiveness and 
indecision, bravery and 

1640
01:24:46,480 --> 01:24:50,600
cowardice, and cruelty and love.
Lady Macbeth is a fiercely 

1641
01:24:50,600 --> 01:24:53,760
ambitious and extremely 
vulnerable person who can both 

1642
01:24:53,760 --> 01:24:55,880
plan murder and be destroyed by 
guilt. 

1643
01:24:56,240 --> 01:24:59,680
Yago is incredibly cunning and 
strangely petty, driven by 

1644
01:24:59,680 --> 01:25:02,600
resentments that don't fully 
excuse the complex retaliation 

1645
01:25:02,600 --> 01:25:05,120
he plans. 
Shakespeare was also more aware 

1646
01:25:05,120 --> 01:25:08,080
of the desire of audiences for 
variety in a single evening's 

1647
01:25:08,080 --> 01:25:10,680
entertainment than most 
playwrights before or since. 

1648
01:25:11,080 --> 01:25:14,960
His plays combine court scenes 
and Tavern scenes, high poetry 

1649
01:25:14,960 --> 01:25:18,960
and everyday prose, and comedy 
and tragedy, all within single 

1650
01:25:18,960 --> 01:25:21,960
stories that managed to remain 
cohesive despite their complex 

1651
01:25:21,960 --> 01:25:25,120
tones. 
Drama, comedy, action, 

1652
01:25:25,280 --> 01:25:28,240
philosophy, and poetry are all 
combined into one experience 

1653
01:25:28,240 --> 01:25:31,960
that somehow feels cohesive 
rather than dispersed, making it

1654
01:25:31,960 --> 01:25:34,280
similar to receiving a full 
entertainment package. 

1655
01:25:34,680 --> 01:25:37,280
Hamlet contains a variety of 
content, including a ghost 

1656
01:25:37,280 --> 01:25:40,360
story, a political thriller, a 
family drama, a romantic 

1657
01:25:40,360 --> 01:25:44,440
tragedy, a revenge plot, a play 
within a play, sword fights, 

1658
01:25:44,760 --> 01:25:48,480
philosophical soliloquies, court
intrigue, and some of the most 

1659
01:25:48,480 --> 01:25:51,480
hilarious grave digger scenes in
dramatic literature. 

1660
01:25:51,800 --> 01:25:54,600
Shakespeare managed to make that
list function as a single, 

1661
01:25:54,600 --> 01:25:58,120
seamless experience, but any 
contemporary entertainment 

1662
01:25:58,120 --> 01:26:01,120
executive would insist on 
dividing it into at least three 

1663
01:26:01,120 --> 01:26:03,640
distinct products. 
Shakespeare was essentially 

1664
01:26:03,640 --> 01:26:07,080
creating Modern English as he 
wrote, so the language merits 

1665
01:26:07,080 --> 01:26:10,120
special attention. 
Shakespeare created or first 

1666
01:26:10,120 --> 01:26:12,840
used many of the words and 
expressions we use on a daily 

1667
01:26:12,840 --> 01:26:16,080
basis in his plays. 
He intuitively saw that language

1668
01:26:16,080 --> 01:26:19,000
could be both poetic and 
conversational, elegant and 

1669
01:26:19,000 --> 01:26:21,280
approachable, and beautiful and 
useful. 

1670
01:26:21,840 --> 01:26:24,640
His character's speech sounds 
both heightened and natural, 

1671
01:26:24,800 --> 01:26:28,200
poetic and realistic. 
Dramatic development was as much

1672
01:26:28,200 --> 01:26:31,040
influenced by the actual theatre
locations as it was by the 

1673
01:26:31,040 --> 01:26:33,080
playwrights and performers who 
performed there. 

1674
01:26:33,480 --> 01:26:36,480
A microcosm of Elizabethan 
society and a device built to 

1675
01:26:36,480 --> 01:26:39,760
produce particular types of 
theatrical experiences, The 

1676
01:26:39,760 --> 01:26:42,120
Globe Theatre was more than just
a place where many of 

1677
01:26:42,120 --> 01:26:44,320
Shakespeare's plays had their 
world premieres. 

1678
01:26:44,720 --> 01:26:47,160
The Globe social geography 
provides us with a wealth of 

1679
01:26:47,160 --> 01:26:49,640
information about Elizabethan 
views on community, 

1680
01:26:49,640 --> 01:26:52,640
entertainment, and class. 
The groundling stood in the pit 

1681
01:26:52,640 --> 01:26:55,640
for a penny, which was less 
expensive than a loaf of bread 

1682
01:26:55,960 --> 01:26:58,520
and the least expensive form of 
entertainment in London. 

1683
01:26:58,960 --> 01:27:01,360
A seat in the galleries, where 
you would be shielded from the 

1684
01:27:01,360 --> 01:27:04,160
elements and have a better view 
of the action, would cost an 

1685
01:27:04,160 --> 01:27:06,480
additional penny. 
Although they most likely 

1686
01:27:06,480 --> 01:27:09,240
couldn't hear much conversation 
and undoubtedly disrupted the 

1687
01:27:09,240 --> 01:27:12,400
staging, the most expensive 
seats were actually on the stage

1688
01:27:12,400 --> 01:27:16,040
itself, where affluent patrons 
could see and be seen by the 

1689
01:27:16,040 --> 01:27:18,720
rest of the audience. 
It was revolutionary to bring 

1690
01:27:18,720 --> 01:27:21,560
together people from different 
social classes in one place. 

1691
01:27:21,920 --> 01:27:24,760
Where else could a pickpocket, A
nobleman and a shopkeeper all 

1692
01:27:24,760 --> 01:27:27,840
enjoy the same entertainment in 
the same place at the same time?

1693
01:27:28,200 --> 01:27:32,040
In the strict, hierarchical 
Elizabethan society in London, 

1694
01:27:32,360 --> 01:27:35,080
theatre emerged as one of the 
few genuinely democratic 

1695
01:27:35,080 --> 01:27:38,160
establishments where individuals
from wildly disparate 

1696
01:27:38,160 --> 01:27:40,960
backgrounds could share similar 
experiences and responses. 

1697
01:27:41,320 --> 01:27:44,000
It's easy to ignore the ways in 
which the architecture of these 

1698
01:27:44,000 --> 01:27:46,120
theatres impacted dramatic 
writing. 

1699
01:27:46,480 --> 01:27:48,920
Plays had to be performed during
the day because there was no 

1700
01:27:48,920 --> 01:27:52,520
artificial lighting, so night 
scenes had to be completely set 

1701
01:27:52,520 --> 01:27:55,920
up through staging and dialogue.
The actors must use their words 

1702
01:27:55,920 --> 01:27:58,640
and deeds alone to persuade a 
daytime audience that it is 

1703
01:27:58,640 --> 01:28:02,440
night time when Romeo ascends to
Juliet's balcony, as playwrights

1704
01:28:02,440 --> 01:28:05,120
learn to use words to create 
vivid images rather than 

1705
01:28:05,120 --> 01:28:07,960
lighting effects. 
This limitation produced some of

1706
01:28:07,960 --> 01:28:11,000
the most exquisite descriptive 
language in English literature, 

1707
01:28:11,360 --> 01:28:14,080
with the platform extending far 
into the audience area. 

1708
01:28:14,400 --> 01:28:17,040
The thrust stage arrangement 
produced an intimacy that is 

1709
01:28:17,040 --> 01:28:19,320
difficult for contemporary 
theatres to replicate. 

1710
01:28:19,640 --> 01:28:22,600
Every performance felt immediate
and intimate because the actors 

1711
01:28:22,600 --> 01:28:25,560
were literally surrounded by 
audience members on three sides 

1712
01:28:25,880 --> 01:28:28,640
instead of being performed to 
the back wall of the theatre or 

1713
01:28:28,640 --> 01:28:31,640
to empty air. 
Soliloquies were shared directly

1714
01:28:31,640 --> 01:28:34,640
with audience members who could 
touch them, fostering a sense of

1715
01:28:34,640 --> 01:28:38,320
mutual confidence and conspiracy
between the performer and the 

1716
01:28:38,320 --> 01:28:40,000
audience. 
Shakespeare and his 

1717
01:28:40,000 --> 01:28:42,480
contemporaries had to use 
dialogue, costumes, and small 

1718
01:28:42,480 --> 01:28:44,360
props to create setting and 
atmosphere. 

1719
01:28:44,760 --> 01:28:46,840
Because there was a dearth of 
ornate scenery. 

1720
01:28:47,240 --> 01:28:50,000
The bed could turn the stage 
into a bedroom, the throne 

1721
01:28:50,000 --> 01:28:53,320
signified a palace, and a few 
branches suggested a forest. 

1722
01:28:53,680 --> 01:28:57,280
Instead of just showing viewers 
preset images, this economy of 

1723
01:28:57,280 --> 01:29:00,680
means compelled playwrights to 
be resourceful and audiences to 

1724
01:29:00,680 --> 01:29:03,800
be creative, resulting in a 
collaborative theatrical 

1725
01:29:03,800 --> 01:29:06,840
experience that stimulated 
viewers creativity. 

1726
01:29:07,040 --> 01:29:10,040
Actors had to be incredibly 
adaptable because Elizabethan 

1727
01:29:10,040 --> 01:29:12,080
theatre companies used a 
repertory system. 

1728
01:29:12,640 --> 01:29:16,080
In a week, a single company may 
present six different plays, 

1729
01:29:16,440 --> 01:29:19,720
requiring actors to learn and 
play dozens of roles at once 

1730
01:29:20,040 --> 01:29:22,920
with little rehearsal time. 
The top actor in a company, such

1731
01:29:22,920 --> 01:29:26,360
as Shakespeare's company, the 
Lord Chamberlain's Men, would 

1732
01:29:26,360 --> 01:29:28,560
have to be ready to play a 
variety of characters and 

1733
01:29:28,560 --> 01:29:32,640
styles, such as King Lear on 
Wednesday, Benedictine Much Ado 

1734
01:29:32,640 --> 01:29:35,320
About Nothing on Tuesday, and 
Hamlet on Monday. 

1735
01:29:35,680 --> 01:29:38,080
Additionally, because of this 
system, plays were written with 

1736
01:29:38,080 --> 01:29:41,720
particular actors in mind. 
Shakespeare customized roles for

1737
01:29:41,720 --> 01:29:44,840
each member of his company based
on their individual strengths, 

1738
01:29:45,120 --> 01:29:49,360
weaknesses, and peculiarities. 
Will Kempe and Robert Armin, 

1739
01:29:49,520 --> 01:29:51,680
both of whom had distinct 
comedic philosophies and 

1740
01:29:51,680 --> 01:29:55,120
specialities, were the intended 
recipients of the clown parts. 

1741
01:29:55,480 --> 01:29:58,280
The tragic parts were written 
for Richard Burbage, who 

1742
01:29:58,280 --> 01:30:01,120
apparently had a regular ability
to bring people to tears. 

1743
01:30:01,680 --> 01:30:04,280
English theatre started to 
undergo minor but important 

1744
01:30:04,280 --> 01:30:07,960
changes in 16 O 3 when James the
First came to power. 

1745
01:30:08,360 --> 01:30:11,240
The emergence of private indoor 
theatres that catered to more 

1746
01:30:11,240 --> 01:30:14,320
affluent audiences coincided 
with the reign of the new King, 

1747
01:30:14,800 --> 01:30:17,480
who was more interested in 
lavish court entertainments than

1748
01:30:17,480 --> 01:30:20,160
in public theatre. 
Shakespeare's company started 

1749
01:30:20,160 --> 01:30:23,040
it's winter performances at the 
Blackfriars Theatre, which was a

1750
01:30:23,040 --> 01:30:25,040
far cry from the public 
amphitheatres. 

1751
01:30:25,520 --> 01:30:28,560
It was more intimate, smaller, 
artificially candlelit, and 

1752
01:30:28,560 --> 01:30:31,600
admission was much pricier. 
Playwrights were inspired to 

1753
01:30:31,600 --> 01:30:34,600
experiment with more 
psychologically complex material

1754
01:30:34,880 --> 01:30:37,480
and advanced theatrical 
techniques as a result of the 

1755
01:30:37,480 --> 01:30:40,080
more affluent and educated 
audience this attracted. 

1756
01:30:40,440 --> 01:30:43,480
Themes of corruption, insanity, 
and moral ambiguity were 

1757
01:30:43,480 --> 01:30:46,840
explored in darker, more 
psychologically complex plays 

1758
01:30:46,840 --> 01:30:50,120
written by playwrights such as 
John Webster, Thomas Middleton, 

1759
01:30:50,320 --> 01:30:53,920
and John Ford with their graphic
violence, sexual transgression, 

1760
01:30:53,920 --> 01:30:57,640
and moral complexity. 
The Duchess of Malfi, The White 

1761
01:30:57,640 --> 01:31:01,960
Devil, and Tis Pity She's a 
Whore challenged the conventions

1762
01:31:01,960 --> 01:31:04,520
of what was appropriate for 
staging in outdoor amphitheatres

1763
01:31:04,520 --> 01:31:07,120
during the day. 
More advanced staging methods 

1764
01:31:07,120 --> 01:31:09,280
were also made possible by the 
indoor theatres. 

1765
01:31:09,600 --> 01:31:13,280
Opportunities for atmospheric 
effects, abrupt illuminations, 

1766
01:31:13,560 --> 01:31:16,280
and the type of chiaroscuro 
lighting that painters of the 

1767
01:31:16,280 --> 01:31:19,440
era were employing to produce 
striking visual effects were 

1768
01:31:19,440 --> 01:31:22,640
made possible by candlelight. 
When audiences were unable to 

1769
01:31:22,640 --> 01:31:24,840
see all of the mechanical 
operations clearly. 

1770
01:31:25,200 --> 01:31:28,240
Trapdoors and flying machinery 
could be used more successfully 

1771
01:31:28,600 --> 01:31:31,520
in indoor theatres. 
Music has grown in significance 

1772
01:31:31,520 --> 01:31:34,440
as a means of providing 
entertainment in between acts as

1773
01:31:34,440 --> 01:31:36,280
well as an accompaniment to the 
action. 

1774
01:31:36,640 --> 01:31:39,000
The development of what would 
eventually become theatrical 

1775
01:31:39,000 --> 01:31:42,120
orchestration as an artistic 
discipline and more subdued 

1776
01:31:42,120 --> 01:31:44,640
musical effects was made 
possible by the acoustics of 

1777
01:31:44,640 --> 01:31:47,240
enclosed spaces. 
English theatre achieved 

1778
01:31:47,240 --> 01:31:50,080
unprecedented levels of 
sophistication and artistic 

1779
01:31:50,080 --> 01:31:53,200
achievement during Charles the 
First reign, but it also began 

1780
01:31:53,200 --> 01:31:56,400
to temporarily decline. 
Court masks evolved into 

1781
01:31:56,400 --> 01:32:01,000
increasingly complex spectacles 
that fuse dance, music, theatre 

1782
01:32:01,240 --> 01:32:03,920
and visual arts in productions 
that were expensive and 

1783
01:32:03,920 --> 01:32:06,360
primarily used to showcase the 
wealth and power of the 

1784
01:32:06,360 --> 01:32:08,840
monarchy. 
Playwrights such as John Ford, 

1785
01:32:09,160 --> 01:32:12,400
Philip Massenger and James 
Shirley produced works of 

1786
01:32:12,400 --> 01:32:15,760
significant artistic value and 
public theatre flourished. 

1787
01:32:16,080 --> 01:32:19,280
However, a confrontation that 
would temporarily put an end to 

1788
01:32:19,280 --> 01:32:22,040
professional theatre in England 
was being sparked by the growing

1789
01:32:22,040 --> 01:32:25,320
Puritan opposition to theatre as
politically dangerous and 

1790
01:32:25,320 --> 01:32:28,160
morally corrupting. 
One of the greatest eras in 

1791
01:32:28,160 --> 01:32:31,800
English dramatic literature came
to an end in 1642 when 

1792
01:32:31,800 --> 01:32:34,760
Parliament passed an ordinance 
banning all public theatres. 

1793
01:32:35,080 --> 01:32:38,040
Actors and playwrights were 
forced underground or into exile

1794
01:32:38,040 --> 01:32:40,880
during England's 18 year ban on 
professional theatre. 

1795
01:32:41,280 --> 01:32:44,280
The theatrical impulse and human
nature, however, have a 

1796
01:32:44,280 --> 01:32:47,640
wonderful quality that makes it 
impossible to eradicate theatre 

1797
01:32:47,640 --> 01:32:51,600
through legislation. 
Theatrical activity persisted in

1798
01:32:51,600 --> 01:32:53,960
disguised forms throughout the 
Commonwealth era. 

1799
01:32:54,320 --> 01:32:56,800
The theatrical tradition was 
maintained through private 

1800
01:32:56,800 --> 01:33:00,160
performances in aristocratic 
homes, travelling entertainers 

1801
01:33:00,160 --> 01:33:03,480
who are careful not to identify 
as actors, and even some public 

1802
01:33:03,480 --> 01:33:06,080
performances that were passed 
off as musical concerts or 

1803
01:33:06,080 --> 01:33:09,480
instructional demonstrations at 
fairs and markets. 

1804
01:33:09,480 --> 01:33:12,520
Droll performances. 
Brief comedic excerpts taken 

1805
01:33:12,520 --> 01:33:16,200
from longer plays were presented
frequently, with actors prepared

1806
01:33:16,200 --> 01:33:19,920
to disperse if officials showed 
up by offering moral instruction

1807
01:33:19,920 --> 01:33:22,560
that coincidentally involved 
costumed actors in acting. 

1808
01:33:22,560 --> 01:33:25,680
Better Stories Some theatrical 
entrepreneurs came up with 

1809
01:33:25,680 --> 01:33:27,600
inventive ways to get around the
bands. 

1810
01:33:27,960 --> 01:33:32,120
When the monarchy was reinstated
in 1660, theatre made a comeback

1811
01:33:32,120 --> 01:33:35,200
to England, but with some 
notable modifications that would

1812
01:33:35,200 --> 01:33:38,560
permanently alter the art form. 
For the first time, women were 

1813
01:33:38,560 --> 01:33:41,520
allowed to act on professional 
stages, which seems like such an

1814
01:33:41,520 --> 01:33:44,080
obvious innovation that you 
wonder why it took so long to 

1815
01:33:44,080 --> 01:33:47,000
occur to anyone. 
In the past, young men were cast

1816
01:33:47,000 --> 01:33:50,040
in all female roles, which 
created some intriguing 

1817
01:33:50,040 --> 01:33:53,080
theatrical complications when 
characters and stories pretended

1818
01:33:53,080 --> 01:33:56,240
to be the opposite gender. 
The ability to see real women 

1819
01:33:56,240 --> 01:33:58,840
portraying women opened up new 
avenues for dramatic 

1820
01:33:58,840 --> 01:34:01,280
characterization and romantic 
comedy. 

1821
01:34:01,640 --> 01:34:04,240
Additionally, male audience 
members occasionally showed 

1822
01:34:04,240 --> 01:34:06,720
greater interest in the 
actresses than in the plays they

1823
01:34:06,720 --> 01:34:09,040
were performing, which led to 
new issues. 

1824
01:34:09,440 --> 01:34:12,240
The most well known Restoration 
actress, Nelle Gwynne, is a 

1825
01:34:12,240 --> 01:34:15,320
prime example of the shifts, 
advantages and disadvantages. 

1826
01:34:15,720 --> 01:34:18,920
This conflict between artistic 
success and personal fame would 

1827
01:34:18,920 --> 01:34:22,160
haunt actresses for centuries, 
as they benefited from 

1828
01:34:22,160 --> 01:34:25,600
professional opportunities while
confronting social stigmas that 

1829
01:34:25,600 --> 01:34:27,840
did not apply to their male 
counterparts. 

1830
01:34:28,160 --> 01:34:30,880
She was a truly gifted performer
who could handle comedy and 

1831
01:34:30,880 --> 01:34:34,160
tragedy with equal skill, but 
she's more famous today for 

1832
01:34:34,160 --> 01:34:36,120
being King Charles the Second's 
mistress. 

1833
01:34:36,440 --> 01:34:39,040
Comedy of manners and other 
sophisticated plays about the 

1834
01:34:39,040 --> 01:34:42,600
social intrigues of the upper 
classes also gained popularity 

1835
01:34:42,600 --> 01:34:45,720
during the Restoration era. 
Instead of being broad physical 

1836
01:34:45,720 --> 01:34:48,600
comedies, these were clever 
verbal entertainments that 

1837
01:34:48,600 --> 01:34:51,800
deftly parodied romantic 
pretenses and social norms. 

1838
01:34:52,160 --> 01:34:55,200
Consider them the forerunners of
contemporary romantic comedies, 

1839
01:34:55,520 --> 01:34:59,040
albeit with tighter corsets, 
more complex language, and a 

1840
01:34:59,040 --> 01:35:01,440
markedly more pessimistic 
outlook on marriage and 

1841
01:35:01,440 --> 01:35:03,880
faithfulness. 
Perhaps the best example of 

1842
01:35:03,880 --> 01:35:06,840
Restoration comedy is William 
Congreve's The Way of the World,

1843
01:35:07,200 --> 01:35:10,160
which features characters who 
navigate romantic and financial 

1844
01:35:10,160 --> 01:35:13,600
complexities with well crafted 
epigrams that only true 

1845
01:35:13,600 --> 01:35:16,640
intelligence can understand. 
There is a lot of wit in the 

1846
01:35:16,640 --> 01:35:20,000
conversation, but it is used as 
a weapon in complex social 

1847
01:35:20,000 --> 01:35:22,360
warfare where reputation and 
wealth are at stake. 

1848
01:35:22,760 --> 01:35:26,160
Compared to their Elizabethan 
forebears, Restoration theatres 

1849
01:35:26,160 --> 01:35:29,200
evolved into more elegant spaces
that increasingly catered to 

1850
01:35:29,200 --> 01:35:32,560
affluent patrons prepared to 
shell out more cash for cosier 

1851
01:35:32,560 --> 01:35:34,760
surroundings. 
Imported from Italian 

1852
01:35:34,760 --> 01:35:37,480
architecture, the Proscenium 
Arch Theatre improved the 

1853
01:35:37,480 --> 01:35:40,600
audience performer relationship 
by separating the two in subtle 

1854
01:35:40,600 --> 01:35:43,720
yet significant ways. 
With painted backdrops and wing 

1855
01:35:43,720 --> 01:35:46,320
flats that could be switched 
between acts to imply different 

1856
01:35:46,320 --> 01:35:50,120
locations, the scenery grew 
increasingly ornate, although it

1857
01:35:50,120 --> 01:35:52,720
also meant that plays relied 
less on the imagination of the 

1858
01:35:52,720 --> 01:35:55,160
audience and more on visual 
spectacle. 

1859
01:35:55,680 --> 01:35:58,760
This marked a shift towards 
theatrical illusionism that 

1860
01:35:58,760 --> 01:36:01,600
would rule stage design for the 
next two centuries. 

1861
01:36:01,960 --> 01:36:04,680
Sentimentalism, the 
groundbreaking notion that 

1862
01:36:04,680 --> 01:36:07,600
viewers should be emotionally 
affected by what they saw rather

1863
01:36:07,600 --> 01:36:10,760
than merely amused or 
intellectually stimulated, was 

1864
01:36:10,760 --> 01:36:13,160
introduced to theatre in the 
1700s. 

1865
01:36:13,520 --> 01:36:16,520
Domestic tragedy and plays about
common middle class people 

1866
01:36:16,520 --> 01:36:19,960
dealing with moral quandres as 
opposed to kings and nobles 

1867
01:36:19,960 --> 01:36:23,040
handling state affairs and 
divine intervention became more 

1868
01:36:23,040 --> 01:36:25,960
popular during this time with 
its emphasis on a young 

1869
01:36:25,960 --> 01:36:28,920
apprentice whose moral decline 
is caused by common human 

1870
01:36:28,920 --> 01:36:32,120
frailties rather than fatal 
character defects or 

1871
01:36:32,120 --> 01:36:35,560
supernatural intervention. 
George Lillo's The London 

1872
01:36:35,560 --> 01:36:39,040
Merchant was revolutionary by 
establishing the idea that 

1873
01:36:39,040 --> 01:36:41,720
theatre could and should 
represent the experiences of its

1874
01:36:41,720 --> 01:36:45,080
audience rather than merely 
offering escapist entertainment 

1875
01:36:45,080 --> 01:36:48,400
about exotic people in 
extraordinary circumstances. 

1876
01:36:48,840 --> 01:36:52,240
This move toward emotional 
realism and relatable characters

1877
01:36:52,240 --> 01:36:54,120
set the foundation for modern 
drama. 

1878
01:36:54,520 --> 01:36:57,800
Emotional responsiveness and 
moral sensitivity were given new

1879
01:36:57,800 --> 01:37:01,080
significance by the cult of 
sensibility that ruled 18th 

1880
01:37:01,080 --> 01:37:03,720
century society. 
Touching scenes were supposed to

1881
01:37:03,720 --> 01:37:06,840
make audiences cry, and the 
number of handkerchiefs needed 

1882
01:37:06,840 --> 01:37:09,200
in the theatre on any given 
night was frequently used to 

1883
01:37:09,200 --> 01:37:11,960
gauge a play's success. 
Although this may seem too 

1884
01:37:11,960 --> 01:37:15,040
sentimental by today's 
standards, it was a significant 

1885
01:37:15,040 --> 01:37:17,360
acknowledgement that theatre 
could be used to explore 

1886
01:37:17,360 --> 01:37:21,240
emotional and moral complexity 
in addition to offering obscene 

1887
01:37:21,240 --> 01:37:23,880
entertainment. 
By creating a more naturalistic 

1888
01:37:23,880 --> 01:37:26,120
performance style that 
prioritized psychological 

1889
01:37:26,120 --> 01:37:29,680
realism over exclamatory 
technique, David Garrick 

1890
01:37:29,680 --> 01:37:32,320
transformed acting. 
During this time, Garrick 

1891
01:37:32,320 --> 01:37:35,240
researched human behaviour and 
attempted to replicate it 

1892
01:37:35,240 --> 01:37:38,320
authentically on stage, rather 
than posing and giving speeches 

1893
01:37:38,320 --> 01:37:42,120
in a formal, oratorical way. 
His portrayal of Hamlet received

1894
01:37:42,120 --> 01:37:44,600
accolades for not looking like 
an actor giving well known 

1895
01:37:44,600 --> 01:37:48,160
speeches, but rather like a real
person dealing with real 

1896
01:37:48,160 --> 01:37:51,320
psychological issues. 
In addition, Garrick invented a 

1897
01:37:51,320 --> 01:37:53,960
number of theatrical techniques 
that are now commonplace. 

1898
01:37:54,480 --> 01:37:57,040
He was one of the first to 
demand that whole productions, 

1899
01:37:57,040 --> 01:38:00,560
not just individual scenes, 
undergo lengthy rehearsals. 

1900
01:38:00,920 --> 01:38:04,120
He created cohesive artistic 
visions for his productions by 

1901
01:38:04,120 --> 01:38:07,760
coordinating staging costumes 
and scenery in order to create 

1902
01:38:07,760 --> 01:38:10,640
atmospheric illumination that 
increased the emotional impact 

1903
01:38:10,640 --> 01:38:13,520
of scenes. 
He even experimented with stage 

1904
01:38:13,520 --> 01:38:16,600
lighting effects using 
reflective surfaces and hidden 

1905
01:38:16,600 --> 01:38:18,640
lamps. 
With periodicals like The 

1906
01:38:18,640 --> 01:38:21,480
Spectator and The Tatler 
reviewing plays and discussing 

1907
01:38:21,480 --> 01:38:25,000
aesthetics, the 18th century 
also witnessed the emergence of 

1908
01:38:25,000 --> 01:38:27,040
what is now known as theatre 
criticism. 

1909
01:38:27,440 --> 01:38:29,560
This lead to a more 
self-conscious theatrical 

1910
01:38:29,560 --> 01:38:32,520
culture where a more 
sophisticated audience examined 

1911
01:38:32,520 --> 01:38:34,240
and discussed artistic 
decisions. 

1912
01:38:34,920 --> 01:38:37,520
The development of theatrical 
celebrity culture as we know it 

1913
01:38:37,520 --> 01:38:39,640
today began in the late 18th 
century. 

1914
01:38:40,040 --> 01:38:43,080
Performers such as Sarah Siddons
rose to fame in Britain and 

1915
01:38:43,080 --> 01:38:45,240
Europe. 
Their private lives, the focus 

1916
01:38:45,240 --> 01:38:48,200
of public interest, and their 
creative interpretations of 

1917
01:38:48,200 --> 01:38:51,240
important roles discussed with 
the same fervor that 

1918
01:38:51,240 --> 01:38:53,880
contemporary audiences reserved 
for athletes. 

1919
01:38:54,200 --> 01:38:56,720
People travelled hundreds of 
miles to see Sidon's Lady 

1920
01:38:56,720 --> 01:38:58,480
Macbeth perform the sleepwalking
scene. 

1921
01:38:58,480 --> 01:39:01,680
Because she was so well known, 
Her departure from the stage was

1922
01:39:01,680 --> 01:39:04,880
viewed as a loss to the nation's
culture, and her performance of 

1923
01:39:04,880 --> 01:39:07,960
the part became the benchmark by
which all other actresses were 

1924
01:39:07,960 --> 01:39:10,200
judged. 
She was the first actress to 

1925
01:39:10,200 --> 01:39:13,280
receive a statue in Westminster 
Abbey, something that would have

1926
01:39:13,280 --> 01:39:16,640
been unimaginable for a 
performer only a century before.

1927
01:39:17,000 --> 01:39:19,640
The development of theatre was 
impacted by this celebrity 

1928
01:39:19,640 --> 01:39:21,840
culture in both positive and 
negative ways. 

1929
01:39:22,440 --> 01:39:25,120
On the plus side, well known 
actors could ensure that shows 

1930
01:39:25,120 --> 01:39:27,680
have audiences and draw funding 
to theatre businesses. 

1931
01:39:28,040 --> 01:39:30,960
Their notoriety contributed to 
the development of theatre as a 

1932
01:39:30,960 --> 01:39:34,160
legitimate art form deserving of
significant cultural 

1933
01:39:34,160 --> 01:39:36,920
consideration. 
On the downside, the star system

1934
01:39:36,920 --> 01:39:40,200
started to skew theatrical 
production, with plays selected 

1935
01:39:40,200 --> 01:39:43,160
more for their ability to 
showcase specific actors than 

1936
01:39:43,160 --> 01:39:44,920
for their inherent artistic 
value. 

1937
01:39:45,320 --> 01:39:48,640
This resulted in a custom of 
star vehicles that prioritized 

1938
01:39:48,640 --> 01:39:52,120
individual skills over balanced 
dramatic construction and 

1939
01:39:52,120 --> 01:39:55,440
ensemble acting. 
Everything, including theatre, 

1940
01:39:55,800 --> 01:39:59,640
was altered by the Industrial 
Revolution in ways that continue

1941
01:39:59,640 --> 01:40:02,080
to shape our perceptions of live
performances. 

1942
01:40:02,520 --> 01:40:05,360
Theatre was transformed from an 
afternoon amusement to an 

1943
01:40:05,360 --> 01:40:08,240
evening event that could rival 
other nightlife activities, 

1944
01:40:08,600 --> 01:40:11,720
thanks to advancements in 
lighting technology that allowed

1945
01:40:11,720 --> 01:40:14,600
indoor performances to last well
into the evening. 

1946
01:40:14,960 --> 01:40:18,120
When gas lighting was first used
in the early 1800s, it 

1947
01:40:18,120 --> 01:40:20,400
completely changed the 
possibilities for theatre. 

1948
01:40:21,040 --> 01:40:24,080
For the first time, stage 
lighting could be precisely 

1949
01:40:24,080 --> 01:40:27,680
adjusted to be brightened for 
dramatic climaxes and dimmed for

1950
01:40:27,680 --> 01:40:30,640
intimate scenes. 
More complex atmospheric effects

1951
01:40:30,640 --> 01:40:33,440
were made possible and film 
makers were equipped with new 

1952
01:40:33,440 --> 01:40:36,680
means of directing viewers 
attention and evoking strong 

1953
01:40:36,680 --> 01:40:40,680
feelings by putting performers 
in the limelight and enabling 

1954
01:40:40,680 --> 01:40:43,240
the type of dramatic 
illumination that could isolate 

1955
01:40:43,240 --> 01:40:46,880
individual characters or produce
amazing visual effects. 

1956
01:40:47,360 --> 01:40:50,720
Limelight, which is made by 
heating line with oxygen and 

1957
01:40:50,720 --> 01:40:55,240
hydrogen flames, was introduced,
resulting in the first powerful 

1958
01:40:55,240 --> 01:40:57,880
spotlight effects. 
Actors would literally position 

1959
01:40:57,880 --> 01:41:00,640
themselves to catch the most 
flattering light during this 

1960
01:41:00,640 --> 01:41:04,080
time, which is where the well 
known expression stealing the 

1961
01:41:04,080 --> 01:41:07,360
spotlight originates. 
As urban populations increased 

1962
01:41:07,360 --> 01:41:10,200
and the middle class grew, 
theatres had to expand to 

1963
01:41:10,200 --> 01:41:12,720
accommodate their leisure time 
and entertainment budget. 

1964
01:41:13,040 --> 01:41:16,040
Several 1000 people could fit in
some of the theatres constructed

1965
01:41:16,040 --> 01:41:19,080
during this time, necessitating 
innovative staging and 

1966
01:41:19,080 --> 01:41:21,640
performance techniques that 
could successfully project to 

1967
01:41:21,640 --> 01:41:25,280
such sizeable crowds. 
Melodrama, a theatrical genre 

1968
01:41:25,280 --> 01:41:28,880
that focused on stark moral 
contrasts, breathtaking special 

1969
01:41:28,880 --> 01:41:32,080
effects, and poignant scenarios 
that were understandable and 

1970
01:41:32,080 --> 01:41:35,200
enjoyable even in large 
theatres, was born as a result. 

1971
01:41:35,640 --> 01:41:38,600
The plots of melodramas included
enough physical action and 

1972
01:41:38,600 --> 01:41:41,880
visual spectacle to keep 
audiences interested even when 

1973
01:41:41,880 --> 01:41:43,760
they couldn't hear every word of
dialogue. 

1974
01:41:44,120 --> 01:41:46,720
While the heroes were entirely 
good and the villains were 

1975
01:41:46,720 --> 01:41:49,960
completely evil, melodramatic 
plots were thrilling for 

1976
01:41:49,960 --> 01:41:52,640
audiences of the time, but 
delightfully absurd by today's 

1977
01:41:52,640 --> 01:41:55,080
standards. 
On family farms, villains 

1978
01:41:55,080 --> 01:41:58,400
threatened foreclosure, heroes 
swung on ropes across burning 

1979
01:41:58,400 --> 01:42:02,200
buildings, heroines were tied to
railroad tracks, and evil was 

1980
01:42:02,200 --> 01:42:06,000
always severely punished, 
usually in a spectacular way. 

1981
01:42:06,320 --> 01:42:09,920
While virtue was always 
rewarded, however, melodrama 

1982
01:42:09,920 --> 01:42:12,640
fulfilled significant social 
roles that went beyond simple 

1983
01:42:12,640 --> 01:42:14,640
amusement. 
In order to help viewers 

1984
01:42:14,640 --> 01:42:17,920
comprehend the swift changes 
taking place in their society, a

1985
01:42:17,920 --> 01:42:21,280
number of melodramas addressed 
modern social issues such as 

1986
01:42:21,280 --> 01:42:25,640
urbanization, class conflict, 
industrialization, and shifting 

1987
01:42:25,640 --> 01:42:28,240
family structures. 
The most well known American 

1988
01:42:28,240 --> 01:42:31,960
play of the 19th century, Uncle 
Tom's Cabin, employed 

1989
01:42:31,960 --> 01:42:35,360
melodramatic devices to make 
anti slavery points to audiences

1990
01:42:35,360 --> 01:42:38,880
that political speeches and 
newspaper editorials might not 

1991
01:42:38,880 --> 01:42:41,240
have been able to reach. 
Additionally, touring 

1992
01:42:41,240 --> 01:42:44,040
productions that could reach 
audiences in smaller cities and 

1993
01:42:44,040 --> 01:42:46,600
towns gained popularity in the 
19th century. 

1994
01:42:46,960 --> 01:42:50,240
As railroad networks expanded, 
it became financially viable to 

1995
01:42:50,240 --> 01:42:53,680
transport entire productions, 
complete with sets, costumes, 

1996
01:42:53,680 --> 01:42:56,840
and entire acting companies, to 
locations across the nation. 

1997
01:42:57,280 --> 01:43:00,120
This made it possible for 
audiences in far-flung places to

1998
01:43:00,120 --> 01:43:02,880
see the same plays that were 
performed in large cities, 

1999
01:43:03,320 --> 01:43:06,920
establishing the first genuinely
national theatrical culture. 

2000
01:43:07,360 --> 01:43:10,240
With theatrical syndicates 
planning tours, reserving 

2001
01:43:10,240 --> 01:43:13,120
venues, and standardizing 
production values across several

2002
01:43:13,120 --> 01:43:16,520
locations, theatre emerged as a 
significant industry. 

2003
01:43:16,520 --> 01:43:19,240
During this time. 
The majority of America's major 

2004
01:43:19,240 --> 01:43:22,000
theatres were under the control 
of the Theatrical Syndicate, 

2005
01:43:22,240 --> 01:43:26,600
which was established in 1896. 
Their booking choices had the 

2006
01:43:26,600 --> 01:43:30,080
power to make or ruin careers. 
A parallel movement that would 

2007
01:43:30,080 --> 01:43:33,680
transform dramatic literature 
and lay the foundation for many 

2008
01:43:33,680 --> 01:43:36,320
of the tenants that still 
governs serious theatre today 

2009
01:43:36,720 --> 01:43:39,400
was emerging at the same time 
that popular theatre was 

2010
01:43:39,400 --> 01:43:42,560
embracing spectacle and wide 
emotional appeal. 

2011
01:43:42,880 --> 01:43:46,760
Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg 
and Anton Chekhov were among the

2012
01:43:46,760 --> 01:43:49,440
first playwrights to tackle 
contemporary social issues 

2013
01:43:49,760 --> 01:43:52,440
through the experiences of 
likable characters in familiar 

2014
01:43:52,440 --> 01:43:54,680
settings. 
Because it addressed marriage 

2015
01:43:54,680 --> 01:43:57,000
and women's rights honestly and 
in ways that went against 

2016
01:43:57,000 --> 01:44:01,040
ingrained social norms, Ibsen's 
Adol's House sparked scandals 

2017
01:44:01,040 --> 01:44:03,760
across Europe. 
Some theatres refused to present

2018
01:44:03,760 --> 01:44:07,640
the plays contentious ending in 
which Nora abandons her husband 

2019
01:44:07,640 --> 01:44:10,640
and kids to find her own 
identity, without including a 

2020
01:44:10,640 --> 01:44:13,360
more traditional conclusion in 
which she resumes her 

2021
01:44:13,360 --> 01:44:16,320
responsibilities to her family. 
But the controversy was 

2022
01:44:16,320 --> 01:44:19,640
precisely the point. 
Ibsen and his peers felt that 

2023
01:44:19,640 --> 01:44:22,320
theatre should provoke viewers 
to reflect deeply on moral 

2024
01:44:22,320 --> 01:44:25,840
issues and societal issues in 
addition to providing amusement.

2025
01:44:26,240 --> 01:44:29,440
This marked a return to theaters
long standing role as a platform

2026
01:44:29,440 --> 01:44:32,800
for discussing significant 
topics, but with a particularly 

2027
01:44:32,800 --> 01:44:35,880
contemporary emphasis on 
psychological realism and 

2028
01:44:35,880 --> 01:44:38,800
current social issues. 
Chekhov mastered the art of 

2029
01:44:38,800 --> 01:44:41,760
naturalistic drama by crafting 
plays in which characters 

2030
01:44:41,760 --> 01:44:45,000
discuss significant topics 
without directly addressing 

2031
01:44:45,000 --> 01:44:48,000
them, in which the most poignant
emotional moments frequently 

2032
01:44:48,000 --> 01:44:51,600
occur in silence, and in which 
the overall impact relies on 

2033
01:44:51,600 --> 01:44:54,160
minute details rather than 
dramatic climaxes. 

2034
01:44:54,480 --> 01:44:57,440
Although The Cherry Orchard is 
supposedly about an aristocratic

2035
01:44:57,440 --> 01:45:01,200
family losing their estate, it's
really about how hard it is to 

2036
01:45:01,200 --> 01:45:04,600
adjust to social change and how 
impossible it is to cling to the

2037
01:45:04,600 --> 01:45:06,880
past. 
These playwrights developed new 

2038
01:45:06,880 --> 01:45:09,240
techniques for creating 
psychological depth and 

2039
01:45:09,240 --> 01:45:12,280
emotional authenticity that 
would influence theatrical 

2040
01:45:12,280 --> 01:45:14,200
writing for the next century and
beyond. 

2041
01:45:14,600 --> 01:45:17,800
Their plot centered on internal 
conflicts and slow revelations 

2042
01:45:17,800 --> 01:45:21,920
rather than external action and 
dramatic confrontations, and 

2043
01:45:21,920 --> 01:45:25,840
their characters spoke and acted
more like real people than 

2044
01:45:25,840 --> 01:45:29,040
theatrical archetypes. 
More changes to theatre occurred

2045
01:45:29,040 --> 01:45:32,160
in the 20th century than in any 
other because of two world wars,

2046
01:45:32,520 --> 01:45:35,840
the emergence of television and 
film, shifting social mores, and

2047
01:45:35,840 --> 01:45:39,040
new technological advancements. 
As naturalistic acting 

2048
01:45:39,040 --> 01:45:41,800
techniques gained popularity in 
the early part of the century, 

2049
01:45:42,040 --> 01:45:45,160
actors attempted to act as 
naturally as possible on stage. 

2050
01:45:45,520 --> 01:45:47,680
The more clamorous 
presentational style that had 

2051
01:45:47,680 --> 01:45:50,600
dominated theatre for centuries 
was drastically different from 

2052
01:45:50,600 --> 01:45:52,680
this. 
By using their own emotional 

2053
01:45:52,680 --> 01:45:55,200
experiences and creating 
intricate psychological 

2054
01:45:55,200 --> 01:45:57,760
backstories for their 
characters, Konstantin 

2055
01:45:57,760 --> 01:46:01,240
Stanislavski created methodical 
techniques to assist actors in 

2056
01:46:01,240 --> 01:46:04,640
creating believable characters. 
Modern actor training was built 

2057
01:46:04,640 --> 01:46:07,400
on the interpretation and 
modification of the Stanislavski

2058
01:46:07,400 --> 01:46:11,280
method by American instructors 
such as Lee Strasberg, Stella 

2059
01:46:11,320 --> 01:46:14,760
Adler, and Sanford Meisner. 
The notion that actors should 

2060
01:46:15,120 --> 01:46:17,480
live truthfully under imaginary 
circumstances. 

2061
01:46:17,760 --> 01:46:20,720
It transformed performance and 
created guidelines that are 

2062
01:46:20,720 --> 01:46:23,480
still studied and used by the 
majority of actors today. 

2063
01:46:23,800 --> 01:46:26,560
Meanwhile, experimental theatre 
artists were pushing in 

2064
01:46:26,560 --> 01:46:29,720
completely different directions,
rejecting naturalistic 

2065
01:46:29,720 --> 01:46:33,440
representation entirely in favor
of more abstract, symbolic, or 

2066
01:46:33,440 --> 01:46:35,360
ritualistic forms of 
performance. 

2067
01:46:35,720 --> 01:46:39,360
In Russia, Sevilod Meyerhold 
created biomechanical acting 

2068
01:46:39,360 --> 01:46:42,760
methods that prioritize stylized
movement and physical accuracy 

2069
01:46:42,760 --> 01:46:45,920
over psychological realism. 
The theatre of cruelty that 

2070
01:46:45,920 --> 01:46:49,000
Antonin and Artur envisioned 
would directly affect audiences 

2071
01:46:49,000 --> 01:46:52,200
emotions and spirituality while 
challenging their rational 

2072
01:46:52,200 --> 01:46:54,920
defenses through powerful 
sensory experiences. 

2073
01:46:55,320 --> 01:46:58,000
Despite his own production's 
frequent failures with modern 

2074
01:46:58,000 --> 01:47:01,240
audiences, his theories shaped 
experimental theatre for 

2075
01:47:01,240 --> 01:47:03,560
decades. 
In order to keep audiences from 

2076
01:47:03,560 --> 01:47:06,600
getting emotionally engrossed in
theatrical illusion, Bertolt 

2077
01:47:06,600 --> 01:47:09,400
Brecht created epic theatre 
techniques. 

2078
01:47:09,680 --> 01:47:12,320
In order for the audience to 
critically consider the social 

2079
01:47:12,320 --> 01:47:15,400
and political issues his plays 
addressed, he wanted them to 

2080
01:47:15,400 --> 01:47:17,360
keep a critical distance from 
the action. 

2081
01:47:17,760 --> 01:47:20,760
Political theatre all across the
world was impacted by Brecht's 

2082
01:47:20,760 --> 01:47:23,920
alienation effects, which 
included direct address to the 

2083
01:47:23,920 --> 01:47:27,160
audience, songs that made 
commentary on the action, and 

2084
01:47:27,160 --> 01:47:30,120
staging that purposefully 
exposed theatrical artifice. 

2085
01:47:30,400 --> 01:47:33,120
American theatre was creating 
its own unique traits and 

2086
01:47:33,120 --> 01:47:36,320
contributions to the art form, 
while European theatre was 

2087
01:47:36,320 --> 01:47:39,200
battling modernist innovations 
and political upheavals. 

2088
01:47:39,600 --> 01:47:43,040
The rise of uniquely American 
dramatic voices that wrote about

2089
01:47:43,040 --> 01:47:46,040
uniquely American issues and 
experiences occurred in the 

2090
01:47:46,040 --> 01:47:49,800
early 20th century. 
The first American playwright to

2091
01:47:49,800 --> 01:47:52,960
receive widespread acclaim for 
his serious dramatic works was 

2092
01:47:52,960 --> 01:47:55,880
Eugene O'Neill. 
His early plays featured working

2093
01:47:55,880 --> 01:47:59,240
class characters in industrial 
settings that, in ways never 

2094
01:47:59,240 --> 01:48:02,960
before seen on stage, reflected 
the realities of American life. 

2095
01:48:03,320 --> 01:48:06,360
Later pieces like The Iceman 
Cometh and Long Day's Journey 

2096
01:48:06,360 --> 01:48:10,160
into Night examine personal 
failure and family dysfunction 

2097
01:48:10,560 --> 01:48:13,400
with a psychological depth that 
was comparable to anything being

2098
01:48:13,400 --> 01:48:15,880
written in Europe. 
O'Neill experimented with 

2099
01:48:15,880 --> 01:48:18,200
theatrical methods that went 
beyond what was typically 

2100
01:48:18,200 --> 01:48:20,600
expected of theatrical 
entertainment in the United 

2101
01:48:20,600 --> 01:48:23,320
States. 
In Strange Interlude, there were

2102
01:48:23,320 --> 01:48:25,800
lengthier side passages where 
characters expressed their 

2103
01:48:25,800 --> 01:48:28,640
thoughts out loud. 
Masks were employed by the Great

2104
01:48:28,640 --> 01:48:31,600
God Brown to symbolize various 
facets of his persona. 

2105
01:48:31,960 --> 01:48:34,880
By adapting Greek tragedy to an 
American setting during the 

2106
01:48:34,880 --> 01:48:38,240
Civil War, Morning Becomes 
Elektra produced a trilogy that 

2107
01:48:38,240 --> 01:48:41,000
used classical dramatic 
structures to analyse American 

2108
01:48:41,000 --> 01:48:43,040
history. 
The only time in American 

2109
01:48:43,040 --> 01:48:45,800
history that the federal 
government directly subsidized 

2110
01:48:45,800 --> 01:48:49,000
theatrical production was during
the Federal Theatre Project, 

2111
01:48:49,400 --> 01:48:52,120
which was a component of the New
Deal initiatives during the 

2112
01:48:52,120 --> 01:48:54,280
Great Depression. 
Thousands of theatre 

2113
01:48:54,280 --> 01:48:57,480
professionals were employed by 
the project between 1935 and 

2114
01:48:57,480 --> 01:49:00,880
1939, and hundreds of 
productions were produced 

2115
01:49:00,880 --> 01:49:04,480
nationwide, including the ground
breaking Living newspaper 

2116
01:49:04,480 --> 01:49:07,400
productions that dramatized 
current events and social 

2117
01:49:07,680 --> 01:49:09,800
concerns. 
Even though the Federal Theatre 

2118
01:49:09,800 --> 01:49:12,680
Project was eventually shut down
because of political concerns 

2119
01:49:12,680 --> 01:49:16,760
about its left-leaning content, 
it showed that serious, socially

2120
01:49:16,760 --> 01:49:20,520
engaged theatre was in high 
demand across the nation, not 

2121
01:49:20,520 --> 01:49:23,400
just in large cities. 
The creation of the integrated 

2122
01:49:23,400 --> 01:49:26,920
musical, which fused songs, 
dances, and dramatic scenes into

2123
01:49:26,920 --> 01:49:30,560
cohesive artistic experiences 
rather than merely entertainment

2124
01:49:30,560 --> 01:49:33,640
reviews with well known 
performers, was perhaps American

2125
01:49:33,640 --> 01:49:36,800
theatre's most notable 
contribution to world drama. 

2126
01:49:37,160 --> 01:49:39,640
With songs that developed 
organically from the character 

2127
01:49:39,640 --> 01:49:42,240
and circumstance rather than 
being added as speciality 

2128
01:49:42,240 --> 01:49:47,320
numbers, Showboat 1927 is 
frequently regarded as the first

2129
01:49:47,320 --> 01:49:49,040
fully integrated American 
musical. 

2130
01:49:49,480 --> 01:49:52,400
The production addressed weighty
topics like racial prejudice and

2131
01:49:52,400 --> 01:49:55,120
the passing of time, 
demonstrating that musical 

2132
01:49:55,120 --> 01:49:57,680
theatre could tackle important 
issues while still offering 

2133
01:49:57,680 --> 01:50:02,040
mainstream entertainment. 
All Right 1943 transformed 

2134
01:50:02,040 --> 01:50:05,040
musical theatre by introducing 
dance sequences that progressed 

2135
01:50:05,040 --> 01:50:08,080
the plot and revealed character 
rather than merely offering 

2136
01:50:08,080 --> 01:50:11,400
spectacle, and by starting with 
a single character singing alone

2137
01:50:11,400 --> 01:50:13,440
on stage instead of a large 
chorus number. 

2138
01:50:13,840 --> 01:50:15,840
Richard Rodgers and Oscar 
Hammerstein, the second 

2139
01:50:15,960 --> 01:50:19,480
partnership, created a model for
musical theatre design that 

2140
01:50:19,480 --> 01:50:22,880
shaped the genre for many years 
through complex music and 

2141
01:50:22,880 --> 01:50:26,040
choreography that produced 
theatrical experiences unmatched

2142
01:50:26,040 --> 01:50:30,760
in any other medium. 
West Side Story 1957 showed that

2143
01:50:30,760 --> 01:50:34,440
musical theatre could address 
modern social issues like gang 

2144
01:50:34,440 --> 01:50:37,600
violence, racial tension, and 
urban poverty. 

2145
01:50:37,920 --> 01:50:40,840
Classical, jazz, and popular 
music were all incorporated into

2146
01:50:40,840 --> 01:50:44,200
Leonard Bernstein's score, and 
Jerome Robbins choreography 

2147
01:50:44,200 --> 01:50:46,880
turned dance from a decorative 
elements to a crucial part of 

2148
01:50:46,880 --> 01:50:49,640
the narrative. 
Broadway musicals heyday, which 

2149
01:50:49,680 --> 01:50:53,920
spanned roughly the 1940s to the
1960s, produced works that 

2150
01:50:53,920 --> 01:50:57,000
shaped American culture. 
Songs from these shows entered 

2151
01:50:57,000 --> 01:50:59,960
the popular repertoire and the 
shows themselves established 

2152
01:50:59,960 --> 01:51:03,000
Broadway as a major cultural 
export that influenced musical 

2153
01:51:03,000 --> 01:51:06,440
theatre development worldwide. 
Alternative theatres arose to 

2154
01:51:06,440 --> 01:51:09,000
accommodate more experimental 
work and give up and coming 

2155
01:51:09,000 --> 01:51:12,640
artists a platform as Broadway 
grew more commercial and costly.

2156
01:51:13,040 --> 01:51:15,760
Originally characterized by 
their smaller size and cheaper 

2157
01:51:15,760 --> 01:51:19,200
ticket costs, Off Broadway 
theatres evolved into hubs for 

2158
01:51:19,200 --> 01:51:22,320
theatrical innovation and 
platforms for works that were 

2159
01:51:22,320 --> 01:51:24,640
unable to find a home in 
commercial settings. 

2160
01:51:24,960 --> 01:51:28,040
Julian Beck and Judith Molina 
founded the Living Theatre, 

2161
01:51:28,360 --> 01:51:31,520
which pioneered confrontational 
and interactive theatre that 

2162
01:51:31,520 --> 01:51:34,280
dismantled the conventional 
divide between audiences and 

2163
01:51:34,280 --> 01:51:37,520
performers, in addition to 
challenging preconceived notions

2164
01:51:37,520 --> 01:51:39,640
about social norms and 
theatrical behaviour. 

2165
01:51:40,080 --> 01:51:42,880
Their production of Paradise Now
invited audience members to 

2166
01:51:42,880 --> 01:51:45,680
participate in the performance. 
Instead of adhering to 

2167
01:51:45,680 --> 01:51:49,040
conventional hierarchical 
structures, The Open Theatre, 

2168
01:51:49,200 --> 01:51:52,440
under the direction of Joseph 
Chaikin, developed ensemble 

2169
01:51:52,440 --> 01:51:55,960
based creation techniques in 
which actors, directors and 

2170
01:51:55,960 --> 01:51:59,200
writers work together throughout
the creative process. 

2171
01:51:59,520 --> 01:52:02,480
Their work, which placed a 
strong emphasis on vocal and 

2172
01:52:02,480 --> 01:52:05,520
physical experimentation, 
produced performance styles that

2173
01:52:05,520 --> 01:52:08,720
had an international impact on 
experimental theatre and actor 

2174
01:52:08,720 --> 01:52:11,080
training. 
As a separate field, performance

2175
01:52:11,080 --> 01:52:13,840
art rejected many of the 
conventions of theatre while 

2176
01:52:13,840 --> 01:52:17,360
drawing inspiration from it. 
Solo performances by artist like

2177
01:52:17,360 --> 01:52:20,680
Laurie Anderson, Spalding Gray, 
and Karen Finley blended 

2178
01:52:20,680 --> 01:52:25,000
storytelling, visual art, music,
and theatre in ways that defied 

2179
01:52:25,000 --> 01:52:28,120
easy classification as art. 
A decentralized theatrical 

2180
01:52:28,120 --> 01:52:30,680
culture was produced by the 
founding of regional theatre 

2181
01:52:30,680 --> 01:52:34,600
companies across the United 
States in the 1960s and 1970s, 

2182
01:52:35,040 --> 01:52:38,040
which lessened New York's 
hegemony and offered chances for

2183
01:52:38,040 --> 01:52:41,800
theatrical growth outside of 
conventional commercial hubs. 

2184
01:52:42,040 --> 01:52:45,760
Organizations such as the Arena 
Stage in Washington, DC, the 

2185
01:52:45,760 --> 01:52:49,080
American Conservatory Theatre in
San Francisco, and the Guthrie 

2186
01:52:49,080 --> 01:52:52,240
Theatre in Minneapolis formed 
unique creative personalities 

2187
01:52:52,480 --> 01:52:54,200
while giving back to their 
communities. 

2188
01:52:54,560 --> 01:52:57,400
Regional theatres emerged as 
crucial venues for creating 

2189
01:52:57,400 --> 01:53:00,480
original works and bringing 
classic plays back to life for 

2190
01:53:00,480 --> 01:53:02,880
modern audiences. 
In addition to creating 

2191
01:53:02,880 --> 01:53:05,920
audiences for serious theatre in
communities across the nation, 

2192
01:53:06,320 --> 01:53:08,920
they offered jobs to theatre 
professionals who wish to work 

2193
01:53:08,920 --> 01:53:11,960
regularly without vying for the 
few Broadway openings. 

2194
01:53:12,360 --> 01:53:14,800
The growth of playwright 
development programs, which 

2195
01:53:14,800 --> 01:53:18,720
supported up and coming authors 
through workshops, readings, and

2196
01:53:18,720 --> 01:53:22,000
developmental productions, was 
also encouraged by the regional 

2197
01:53:22,000 --> 01:53:24,400
theatre movement. 
The works of many of the most 

2198
01:53:24,400 --> 01:53:27,920
significant American playwrights
of the late 20th century, such 

2199
01:53:27,920 --> 01:53:31,520
as David Mamet, Sam Shepard, and
Lanford Wilson, were developed 

2200
01:53:31,520 --> 01:53:34,400
in regional theatres. 
The theatre of today is part of 

2201
01:53:34,400 --> 01:53:38,440
a complex ecosystem that also 
includes social media, video 

2202
01:53:38,440 --> 01:53:42,280
games, streaming services, 
television, and movies. 

2203
01:53:42,600 --> 01:53:45,320
Instead of being supplanted by 
these more recent entertainment 

2204
01:53:45,320 --> 01:53:48,400
mediums, theatre has managed to 
integrate their innovations 

2205
01:53:48,400 --> 01:53:51,800
while preserving its fundamental
qualities as a live social 

2206
01:53:51,800 --> 01:53:54,200
event. 
Diversity is embraced by modern 

2207
01:53:54,200 --> 01:53:56,840
theatre in ways that were 
unthinkable in earlier times. 

2208
01:53:57,200 --> 01:54:00,040
On contemporary stages, stories 
from various cultures, 

2209
01:54:00,320 --> 01:54:03,320
previously marginalized 
viewpoints, and experimental 

2210
01:54:03,320 --> 01:54:06,520
forms that defy conventional 
notions of what theatre can be 

2211
01:54:06,520 --> 01:54:08,800
coexist. 
Playwrights such as Tony 

2212
01:54:08,800 --> 01:54:12,800
Kushner, Lin Manuel Miranda, and
Susan Laurie Parks have produced

2213
01:54:12,800 --> 01:54:15,680
plays that broaden the 
theatrical Canon while appealing

2214
01:54:15,680 --> 01:54:18,360
to new audiences. 
The fundamental components of 

2215
01:54:18,360 --> 01:54:21,680
theatrical performance have been
improved by technology rather 

2216
01:54:21,680 --> 01:54:24,760
than replaced. 
Nowadays, sound design is a 

2217
01:54:24,760 --> 01:54:28,200
highly developed art form that 
produces oral landscapes that 

2218
01:54:28,200 --> 01:54:31,440
were not possible in the past. 
Computer controlled systems are 

2219
01:54:31,440 --> 01:54:34,040
used in lighting design to 
produce effects that are only 

2220
01:54:34,040 --> 01:54:36,320
constrained by the designer's 
creativity. 

2221
01:54:36,680 --> 01:54:39,760
Real time visual environments 
that adapt to live performances 

2222
01:54:39,760 --> 01:54:42,800
are made possible by digital 
effects and video projection. 

2223
01:54:43,120 --> 01:54:45,800
However, these technological 
advancements support 

2224
01:54:45,800 --> 01:54:48,800
conventional theatrical 
functions such as narrating 

2225
01:54:48,800 --> 01:54:51,920
stories, setting the mood, and 
drawing in viewers. 

2226
01:54:52,320 --> 01:54:55,000
Realizing that theatres power is
in the direct interaction 

2227
01:54:55,000 --> 01:54:58,280
between actors and audiences, 
the most successful modern 

2228
01:54:58,280 --> 01:55:01,480
productions use technology to 
complement live performance 

2229
01:55:01,760 --> 01:55:04,560
rather than to replace it. 
Some elements of theatre have 

2230
01:55:04,560 --> 01:55:08,120
stayed remarkably consistent 
over thousands of years despite 

2231
01:55:08,120 --> 01:55:10,880
all these changes. 
The fundamental bond between an 

2232
01:55:10,880 --> 01:55:13,640
entertainer and their audience, 
the enchantment of live 

2233
01:55:13,640 --> 01:55:17,040
performances, and the potency of
group storytelling have 

2234
01:55:17,040 --> 01:55:20,320
withstood all social changes and
technological advancements. 

2235
01:55:20,680 --> 01:55:23,880
Being in the same room as live 
performers, experiencing the 

2236
01:55:23,880 --> 01:55:26,880
energy of the crowd, and 
realizing that this specific 

2237
01:55:26,880 --> 01:55:30,240
performance will never be 
precisely duplicated are still 

2238
01:55:30,240 --> 01:55:32,680
incomparable. 
Live performances are 

2239
01:55:32,680 --> 01:55:35,560
unpredictable and crucial in 
ways that recorded entertainment

2240
01:55:35,560 --> 01:55:39,000
can never match, with subtle 
variations brought about by the 

2241
01:55:39,000 --> 01:55:42,440
audience's mood, the performers,
energy, the weather, and 

2242
01:55:42,440 --> 01:55:45,880
countless other small factors. 
Our cave dwelling ancestors 

2243
01:55:45,880 --> 01:55:48,800
gathered around their fires for 
many of the same purposes that 

2244
01:55:48,800 --> 01:55:52,320
theatre still fulfills today. 
It gives difficult feelings and 

2245
01:55:52,320 --> 01:55:56,520
complicated concepts A tangible 
form and a common context which 

2246
01:55:56,520 --> 01:55:59,280
aids in their processing. 
By offering experiences that 

2247
01:55:59,280 --> 01:56:02,920
people can talk about, debate 
and remember together, it 

2248
01:56:02,920 --> 01:56:06,840
fosters a sense of community. 
It allows each generation to 

2249
01:56:06,840 --> 01:56:09,440
reinterpret stories and cultural
values for their current 

2250
01:56:09,440 --> 01:56:12,720
relevance while preserving them.
Theatre gives us the opportunity

2251
01:56:12,720 --> 01:56:15,320
to investigate various 
viewpoints and options in a 

2252
01:56:15,320 --> 01:56:18,800
secure setting where we can 
experience repercussions without

2253
01:56:18,800 --> 01:56:21,240
actually going through them, 
observe other people's 

2254
01:56:21,240 --> 01:56:24,680
decisions, and consider how we 
might act in comparable 

2255
01:56:24,680 --> 01:56:27,640
situations Through the 
experiences of characters who 

2256
01:56:27,640 --> 01:56:31,200
represent various facets of 
human nature, it offers a forum 

2257
01:56:31,200 --> 01:56:34,320
for discussing ethical issues, 
societal issues, and 

2258
01:56:34,320 --> 01:56:37,280
interpersonal conflicts. 
Indeed, theatre serves many 

2259
01:56:37,280 --> 01:56:40,280
important artistic and social 
purposes, but it's also 

2260
01:56:40,280 --> 01:56:42,400
important to remember that it's 
just for fun. 

2261
01:56:42,760 --> 01:56:46,920
The small pleasures, the shared 
gasp of surprised and unexpected

2262
01:56:46,920 --> 01:56:50,120
plot twist, the laughter that 
breaks out during a well timed 

2263
01:56:50,120 --> 01:56:53,560
comedy sequence, the shared 
intake of breath during a moment

2264
01:56:53,560 --> 01:56:58,600
of transcendent beauty directly 
connect us to every audience as 

2265
01:56:58,600 --> 01:57:01,560
ever assembled to witness other 
people posing as someone else. 

2266
01:57:01,880 --> 01:57:04,400
Theatre's humanity is what makes
it so appealing. 

2267
01:57:05,080 --> 01:57:07,600
In contrast to television or 
movies, which show us still 

2268
01:57:07,600 --> 01:57:10,400
photos of actors who played 
their parts weeks or months ago,

2269
01:57:10,920 --> 01:57:14,400
theatre shows us real people 
performing live right in front 

2270
01:57:14,400 --> 01:57:16,440
of us. 
The tear shed by a theatre 

2271
01:57:16,440 --> 01:57:19,760
performer are genuine. 
When they laugh, it's real 

2272
01:57:19,760 --> 01:57:22,240
laughter. 
They must immediately correct 

2273
01:57:22,240 --> 01:57:24,000
their mistakes in front of the 
audience. 

2274
01:57:24,440 --> 01:57:27,880
No other art form can compare to
the sense of danger and urgency 

2275
01:57:27,880 --> 01:57:30,200
this evokes. 
During a live performance, 

2276
01:57:30,200 --> 01:57:33,200
anything can happen. 
An actor may forget their lines,

2277
01:57:33,560 --> 01:57:37,000
a set piece may break, or a 
costume may tear at a pivotal 

2278
01:57:37,000 --> 01:57:39,600
point. 
How the actors respond to these 

2279
01:57:39,600 --> 01:57:42,360
situations becomes part of the 
entertainment for the evening. 

2280
01:57:42,760 --> 01:57:46,040
By agreeing to overlook small 
errors, recognizing the skill 

2281
01:57:46,040 --> 01:57:48,920
needed to produce convincing 
characters and gripping 

2282
01:57:48,920 --> 01:57:51,960
narratives under such immediate 
pressure, the audience 

2283
01:57:51,960 --> 01:57:54,560
complicitly maintains the 
theatrical illusion. 

2284
01:57:54,960 --> 01:57:57,840
With theatrical traditions from 
all over the world influencing 

2285
01:57:57,840 --> 01:58:00,920
one another in ways that were 
not feasible in the past, modern

2286
01:58:00,920 --> 01:58:03,200
theatre has a genuinely global 
reach. 

2287
01:58:03,880 --> 01:58:06,960
Western experimental theatre is 
influenced by Japanese NO and 

2288
01:58:06,960 --> 01:58:09,880
Kabuki techniques. 
Modern American playwriting is 

2289
01:58:09,880 --> 01:58:12,240
influenced by African 
storytelling traditions. 

2290
01:58:12,640 --> 01:58:15,400
Asian productions of Western 
classics adopt European 

2291
01:58:15,400 --> 01:58:18,560
directing techniques by 
broadening the scope of methods,

2292
01:58:18,560 --> 01:58:21,040
themes and approaches accessible
to modern artists. 

2293
01:58:21,360 --> 01:58:24,480
This cross pollination has 
enhanced theatre as artists 

2294
01:58:24,480 --> 01:58:27,240
strive to respect traditional 
forms while bringing them up to 

2295
01:58:27,240 --> 01:58:30,760
date for contemporary audiences,
as well as negotiate issues of 

2296
01:58:30,760 --> 01:58:33,960
cultural appropriation and 
genuine representation. 

2297
01:58:34,320 --> 01:58:36,480
It has also brought forth new 
difficulties. 

2298
01:58:36,840 --> 01:58:39,560
Theatre innovations are now 
widely disseminated across 

2299
01:58:39,560 --> 01:58:42,200
national and cultural borders 
through the festival circuit. 

2300
01:58:42,520 --> 01:58:45,360
Festivals in Adelaide, 
Edinburgh, Avignon and numerous 

2301
01:58:45,360 --> 01:58:48,600
other cities offer venues for 
artists from various traditions 

2302
01:58:48,600 --> 01:58:51,240
to exchange their work and have 
an impact on one another's 

2303
01:58:51,240 --> 01:58:53,560
growth. 
This international exchange has 

2304
01:58:53,560 --> 01:58:56,640
been speed up by digital 
communication, which has made it

2305
01:58:56,640 --> 01:58:59,000
possible for theatre 
professionals to collaborate on 

2306
01:58:59,000 --> 01:59:02,920
projects, share techniques and 
reach audiences around the world

2307
01:59:02,920 --> 01:59:05,920
in ways that were unthinkable 
for earlier generations. 

2308
01:59:06,240 --> 01:59:08,640
Although live streaming of 
theatrical performances has 

2309
01:59:08,640 --> 01:59:12,280
grown in sophistication and 
popularity, it still serves as 

2310
01:59:12,280 --> 01:59:15,040
an addition to live theatre 
experiences rather than as a 

2311
01:59:15,040 --> 01:59:17,840
substitute for them. 
Theatre keeps changing while 

2312
01:59:17,840 --> 01:59:19,640
retaining its fundamental 
qualities. 

2313
01:59:19,640 --> 01:59:22,160
As we look to the future, 
although they haven't yet 

2314
01:59:22,160 --> 01:59:24,360
completely altered the 
fundamental theatrical 

2315
01:59:24,360 --> 01:59:27,480
experience of live performers 
working with live audiences, 

2316
01:59:28,040 --> 01:59:31,120
virtual and augmented reality 
technologies present new 

2317
01:59:31,120 --> 01:59:33,800
opportunities for staging and 
audience interaction. 

2318
01:59:34,200 --> 01:59:36,520
Theatre operations are being 
impacted by environmental 

2319
01:59:36,520 --> 01:59:39,880
concerns as many businesses are 
implementing sustainable set 

2320
01:59:39,880 --> 01:59:43,680
construction, energy use, and 
touring logistics practices. 

2321
01:59:44,040 --> 01:59:47,120
As audiences, funding sources, 
and distribution strategies 

2322
01:59:47,120 --> 01:59:49,760
shift in response to more 
general social and technological

2323
01:59:49,760 --> 01:59:53,040
advancements, theatre's 
economics continue to change. 

2324
01:59:53,440 --> 01:59:56,840
The same urgent subject matter 
that has always inspired the 

2325
01:59:56,840 --> 02:00:00,040
most compelling dramatic work is
available to theatre today in 

2326
02:00:00,040 --> 02:00:03,920
the form of climate change, 
political polarization, economic

2327
02:00:03,920 --> 02:00:06,440
inequality and technological 
disruption. 

2328
02:00:06,840 --> 02:00:09,440
Emerging playwrights of today 
are figuring out how to deal 

2329
02:00:09,440 --> 02:00:11,840
with these issues while 
respecting theatre's historical 

2330
02:00:11,840 --> 02:00:15,320
advantages and investigating 
fresh avenues for artistic 

2331
02:00:15,320 --> 02:00:18,200
expression. 10s of thousands of 
years ago, the first 

2332
02:00:18,200 --> 02:00:20,880
storytellers gathered around 
their fires and began A 

2333
02:00:20,880 --> 02:00:23,520
tradition that today's young 
performers are carrying on. 

2334
02:00:23,880 --> 02:00:26,320
They're learning from teachers 
who learnt from teachers who can

2335
02:00:26,320 --> 02:00:28,960
trace their ancestry back 
through centuries of theatrical 

2336
02:00:28,960 --> 02:00:32,400
tradition, an unbroken line of 
knowledge and technique that 

2337
02:00:32,400 --> 02:00:34,960
links actors of today to actors 
of the past. 

2338
02:00:35,360 --> 02:00:38,520
However, they're also developing
new formats and inventive 

2339
02:00:38,520 --> 02:00:41,400
storytelling techniques that 
appeal to audiences in the 

2340
02:00:41,400 --> 02:00:44,320
modern era who are confronted 
with previously unheard of 

2341
02:00:44,320 --> 02:00:47,200
possibilities and challenges. 
They are performing for 

2342
02:00:47,200 --> 02:00:50,400
audiences that include people 
from all over the world, working

2343
02:00:50,400 --> 02:00:53,200
in theatres that are equipped 
with new technology, and 

2344
02:00:53,200 --> 02:00:56,200
tackling artistic and social 
issues that were unthinkable for

2345
02:00:56,200 --> 02:00:59,240
earlier generations. 
Theatre adapts without losing 

2346
02:00:59,240 --> 02:01:02,880
its core, which is why it 
endures and flourishes while 

2347
02:01:02,880 --> 02:01:05,920
embracing new technologies. 
It keeps its emphasis on 

2348
02:01:05,920 --> 02:01:08,800
interpersonal connections and in
person communication. 

2349
02:01:09,200 --> 02:01:12,120
It explores the timeless themes 
that have always fueled dramatic

2350
02:01:12,120 --> 02:01:14,960
literature while incorporating 
shifting social perspectives. 

2351
02:01:15,600 --> 02:01:18,360
In addition to developing new 
narratives that represent modern

2352
02:01:18,360 --> 02:01:21,880
experience, it discovers novel 
ways to tell old tales. 

2353
02:01:22,200 --> 02:01:25,520
The value of theaters emphasis 
on community presence and shared

2354
02:01:25,520 --> 02:01:29,680
experience increases rather than
decreases in our increasingly 

2355
02:01:29,680 --> 02:01:31,960
digital, remote and fast-paced 
world. 

2356
02:01:32,360 --> 02:01:34,720
The experience of sitting in a 
theatre with hundreds of other 

2357
02:01:34,720 --> 02:01:37,840
people, all of whom are focused 
on the same live performance, 

2358
02:01:38,280 --> 02:01:41,000
feels more valuable and unique 
as more of our entertainment 

2359
02:01:41,000 --> 02:01:43,040
becomes personalized and 
customizable. 

2360
02:01:43,440 --> 02:01:46,520
Theatre serves as a reminder 
that humans are social beings, 

2361
02:01:46,800 --> 02:01:49,840
require opportunities to come 
together in physical settings 

2362
02:01:50,120 --> 02:01:53,640
where we can laugh, cry and 
discuss what it means to be 

2363
02:01:53,640 --> 02:01:55,880
human. 
It offers a break from the never

2364
02:01:55,880 --> 02:01:59,040
ending stimulation of digital 
media in favour of the more 

2365
02:01:59,040 --> 02:02:02,640
profound rewards of focused 
attention, emotional involvement

2366
02:02:02,920 --> 02:02:05,800
and group contemplation. 
For the next few hours you 

2367
02:02:05,800 --> 02:02:08,640
become a part of something 
bigger than yourself, part of 

2368
02:02:08,640 --> 02:02:11,640
the ongoing dialogue between the
past and present, between 

2369
02:02:11,640 --> 02:02:14,960
artists and audiences, and 
between personal experience and 

2370
02:02:14,960 --> 02:02:18,040
collective understanding that 
has been going on for as long as

2371
02:02:18,040 --> 02:02:19,960
people have been gathering to 
tell stories. 

2372
02:02:20,280 --> 02:02:23,240
This begins when the curtain 
rises and the first actor enters

2373
02:02:23,240 --> 02:02:25,560
the spotlight. 
You take part in one of the 

2374
02:02:25,560 --> 02:02:28,400
oldest and most enduring 
traditions in human history in 

2375
02:02:28,400 --> 02:02:32,000
that dimly lit theatre with 
strangers who momentarily become

2376
02:02:32,000 --> 02:02:34,560
your companions. 
As you watch a story unfold 

2377
02:02:34,920 --> 02:02:37,800
together with everyone else 
present, you consent to believe 

2378
02:02:37,800 --> 02:02:41,240
the story being told and allow 
yourself to be moved by the 

2379
02:02:41,240 --> 02:02:44,440
experiences of fictional 
characters who are portrayed by 

2380
02:02:44,480 --> 02:02:47,360
actual people just a few feet 
away from you. 

2381
02:02:47,760 --> 02:02:50,720
And when the lights come up and 
the applause subsides, you take 

2382
02:02:50,720 --> 02:02:53,440
a little bit of that experience 
back into your everyday life. 

2383
02:02:53,840 --> 02:02:57,440
Memories of things that shocked,
touched, or challenged you. 

2384
02:02:58,040 --> 02:03:00,200
Questions prompted by the story 
you've seen. 

2385
02:03:00,560 --> 02:03:04,080
Connections drawn between the 
experiences of the characters in

2386
02:03:04,080 --> 02:03:07,600
your own life, and the pure joy 
of spending time with people who

2387
02:03:07,600 --> 02:03:11,520
have chosen to congregate in 
that specific location at that 

2388
02:03:11,520 --> 02:03:13,920
specific moment. 
To partake in the age-old 

2389
02:03:13,920 --> 02:03:17,320
enchantment of live performance.
Because it fulfills needs that 

2390
02:03:17,320 --> 02:03:20,040
technology cannot and offers 
experiences that no other art 

2391
02:03:20,040 --> 02:03:22,120
form can match. 
Theatre has endured. 

2392
02:03:22,480 --> 02:03:24,960
There will always be theatres 
where actors and audiences 

2393
02:03:24,960 --> 02:03:28,360
gather to discuss what it means 
to be alive in any given time 

2394
02:03:28,360 --> 02:03:31,560
and location, as long as people 
have a need for stories, a 

2395
02:03:31,800 --> 02:03:35,080
desire for connection and a 
search for meaning and shared 

2396
02:03:35,080 --> 02:03:38,400
experiences. 
So let's celebrate theatre, it's

2397
02:03:38,400 --> 02:03:42,400
absurd aspirations and deep 
fulfilments, it's age-old wisdom

2398
02:03:42,400 --> 02:03:46,720
and modern inventions and it's 
capacity to make us laugh, cry 

2399
02:03:46,880 --> 02:03:49,360
and think often, all in one 
evening. 

2400
02:03:49,800 --> 02:03:52,080
Cheers to the actors who 
dedicate their lives to playing 

2401
02:03:52,080 --> 02:03:55,040
different roles, the directors 
who transform unfinished 

2402
02:03:55,040 --> 02:03:58,400
material into meaningful 
experiences, the designers who 

2403
02:03:58,400 --> 02:04:02,200
build worlds out of plywood and 
imagination, and the audiences 

2404
02:04:02,200 --> 02:04:06,040
who consistently turn up night 
after night willing to believe 

2405
02:04:06,040 --> 02:04:09,320
whatever story is being told. 
The custom is upheld, the 

2406
02:04:09,320 --> 02:04:12,520
curtain is raised, and the never
ending dialogue between the 

2407
02:04:12,520 --> 02:04:15,920
performer and the audience, the 
story and the listener and the 

2408
02:04:15,920 --> 02:04:18,160
imagination in the real world 
continues. 

2409
02:04:18,560 --> 02:04:21,240
May your own performances, 
whether on stage or in the 

2410
02:04:21,240 --> 02:04:24,600
everyday theatre of life, be 
full of the ideal ratio of humor

2411
02:04:24,600 --> 02:04:28,880
and drama, knowledge and awe and
individual expression and group 

2412
02:04:28,880 --> 02:04:30,880
harmony. 
Sweet dreams. 

2413
02:04:40,230 --> 02:04:42,870
You wake up before dawn in your 
cell, not because you want to, 

2414
02:04:42,950 --> 02:04:46,510
but because Marcus, the lanista 
who runs this gladiator school, 

2415
02:04:46,830 --> 02:04:48,950
has a peculiar fondness for 
Roosters. 

2416
02:04:49,430 --> 02:04:52,310
Three of them, to be exact, and 
they seem to take personal 

2417
02:04:52,310 --> 02:04:55,760
offence at the concept of sleep.
They're crowing echoes through 

2418
02:04:55,760 --> 02:04:59,320
the stone corridors of the ludus
like a cacophony of very angry, 

2419
02:04:59,720 --> 02:05:03,640
very small trumpets. 
Your sleeping mat isn't exactly 

2420
02:05:03,640 --> 02:05:06,880
what you'd call comfortable. 
It's essentially a thin piece of

2421
02:05:06,880 --> 02:05:09,600
fabric stretched over straw 
that's seen better decades. 

2422
02:05:10,120 --> 02:05:12,680
But you've grown accustomed to 
it the way you've grown 

2423
02:05:12,680 --> 02:05:15,640
accustomed to most things in 
this life that chose you rather 

2424
02:05:15,640 --> 02:05:19,160
than the other way around. 
The cell is small, about the 

2425
02:05:19,160 --> 02:05:23,040
size of a modern walk in closet,
with walls that weep moisture in

2426
02:05:23,040 --> 02:05:26,120
the winter and radiate heat like
an oven in summer. 

2427
02:05:26,720 --> 02:05:30,560
You stretch, feeling your joints
pop in that satisfying way that 

2428
02:05:30,560 --> 02:05:33,120
reminds you you're still alive 
and relatively intact. 

2429
02:05:33,720 --> 02:05:35,920
This is always a good sign in 
your line of work. 

2430
02:05:36,280 --> 02:05:39,840
Your body is a road map of small
scars and faded bruises, each 

2431
02:05:39,840 --> 02:05:42,720
one a story you'd rather not 
tell at dinner parties if you 

2432
02:05:42,720 --> 02:05:44,800
went to dinner parties, which 
you don't. 

2433
02:05:46,200 --> 02:05:47,960
The other gladiators are 
stirring, too. 

2434
02:05:48,360 --> 02:05:51,880
There's Gaius, who snores like a
hibernating bear and somehow 

2435
02:05:51,880 --> 02:05:54,680
always look surprised when he 
wakes up, as if sleep were a 

2436
02:05:54,680 --> 02:05:56,640
magic trick he couldn't quite 
figure out. 

2437
02:05:57,880 --> 02:06:00,840
Across the corridor, you can 
hear Lucius already doing his 

2438
02:06:00,840 --> 02:06:02,920
morning stretches. 
The man is unnaturally 

2439
02:06:02,920 --> 02:06:06,160
disciplined, the sort who 
probably organized his toys by 

2440
02:06:06,160 --> 02:06:09,200
colour as a child. 
The guards unlock the cells with

2441
02:06:09,200 --> 02:06:12,480
a series of metallic clanks that
serve as your daily alarm clock.

2442
02:06:13,000 --> 02:06:15,960
You file out with the others, a 
procession of dishevelled 

2443
02:06:15,960 --> 02:06:18,320
warriors shuffling toward the 
communal washing area. 

2444
02:06:18,960 --> 02:06:21,800
The water is cold enough to make
you question your life choices, 

2445
02:06:22,240 --> 02:06:24,480
but it does the job of shocking 
you fully awake. 

2446
02:06:25,040 --> 02:06:27,760
Breakfast is barley porridge 
with a consistency somewhere 

2447
02:06:27,760 --> 02:06:30,600
between soup and mortar. 
Sometimes there are bits of 

2448
02:06:30,600 --> 02:06:33,440
dried meat floating in it, 
though you've learned not to ask

2449
02:06:33,440 --> 02:06:35,040
too many questions about the 
sauce. 

2450
02:06:35,520 --> 02:06:38,280
The bread is dense and chewy, 
the kind that double s as a 

2451
02:06:38,280 --> 02:06:40,560
weapon if you're creative 
enough, but it fills your 

2452
02:06:40,560 --> 02:06:43,800
stomach, and in this business, 
that's really all you can ask 

2453
02:06:43,800 --> 02:06:46,600
for. 
You eat in relative silence, 

2454
02:06:46,960 --> 02:06:49,760
listening to the morning sounds 
of the ludus coming to life 

2455
02:06:50,240 --> 02:06:52,360
somewhere. 
A blacksmith is already working 

2456
02:06:52,360 --> 02:06:55,000
on equipment repairs, the 
rhythmic hammering that will 

2457
02:06:55,000 --> 02:06:56,600
provide the soundtrack to your 
day. 

2458
02:06:57,200 --> 02:07:00,440
The cook is arguing with a grain
merchant about quality, their 

2459
02:07:00,440 --> 02:07:03,080
voices carrying across the 
courtyard in rapid fire. 

2460
02:07:03,080 --> 02:07:05,160
Etruscan. 
That sounds like an argument 

2461
02:07:05,160 --> 02:07:07,000
between two very passionate 
birds. 

2462
02:07:08,000 --> 02:07:11,320
After breakfast, you report to 
the equipment room, where Titus,

2463
02:07:11,560 --> 02:07:14,200
the grizzled old gladiator who 
survived long enough to become 

2464
02:07:14,200 --> 02:07:17,320
an instructor, inspects each 
fighter's gear with the 

2465
02:07:17,320 --> 02:07:20,400
intensity of a mother examining 
her child's scraped knee. 

2466
02:07:20,960 --> 02:07:23,800
Your leather armor gets a 
thorough once over, straps 

2467
02:07:23,800 --> 02:07:28,160
checked, padding adjusted. 
Your sword, the gladius that's 

2468
02:07:28,160 --> 02:07:31,600
seen more action than a diplomat
in wartime, is examined for 

2469
02:07:31,600 --> 02:07:35,240
Nixon Ware. 
Your shield grip is loose, Titus

2470
02:07:35,240 --> 02:07:38,080
mutters, his weathered hands 
working the leather strapping. 

2471
02:07:38,520 --> 02:07:41,160
Loose grip, loose life, Remember
that? 

2472
02:07:42,080 --> 02:07:44,400
You nod, though you've heard 
this particular wisdom roughly 

2473
02:07:44,400 --> 02:07:47,640
300 times. 
Titus has maybe a dozen sayings 

2474
02:07:47,640 --> 02:07:50,640
that he rotates through like a 
philosophical water wheel, but 

2475
02:07:50,640 --> 02:07:52,680
the man has survived 15 years in
the arena. 

2476
02:07:52,680 --> 02:07:55,440
So you listen. 
In your world, survival tips 

2477
02:07:55,440 --> 02:07:58,600
come from people who've actually
survived, not from people who've

2478
02:07:58,600 --> 02:08:02,720
read about surviving. 
The morning inspection complete,

2479
02:08:02,920 --> 02:08:04,480
you head to the training 
grounds. 

2480
02:08:04,960 --> 02:08:08,400
The sand is already warm under 
your feet, heated by the early 

2481
02:08:08,400 --> 02:08:10,760
sun filtering through the 
ludus's open roof. 

2482
02:08:11,400 --> 02:08:14,480
Today will be another day of 
practice, preparation, and 

2483
02:08:14,480 --> 02:08:17,040
trying not to think too hard 
about why you're preparing. 

2484
02:08:17,400 --> 02:08:20,200
The training ground is your 
second home, though calling it 

2485
02:08:20,200 --> 02:08:23,120
home might be generous. 
It's more like that relative's 

2486
02:08:23,120 --> 02:08:26,440
house where you have to stay, 
sometimes familiar but not 

2487
02:08:26,440 --> 02:08:30,440
exactly comfortable. 
The sand is fine and white, 

2488
02:08:30,920 --> 02:08:33,960
imported from some distant beach
where people probably have 

2489
02:08:33,960 --> 02:08:36,200
better career options than 
professional combat. 

2490
02:08:37,120 --> 02:08:40,640
Your first drill of the day is 
footwork, which sounds simple 

2491
02:08:40,640 --> 02:08:43,680
until you realize that in the 
arena, fancy footwork is the 

2492
02:08:43,680 --> 02:08:46,440
difference between going home to
your cell and going home to 

2493
02:08:46,440 --> 02:08:48,440
whatever afterlife the gods have
planned for you. 

2494
02:08:48,920 --> 02:08:52,440
You practice the basic 
movements, advance, retreat, 

2495
02:08:52,800 --> 02:08:56,520
pivot, and dodge. 
Each step has to be precise. 

2496
02:08:56,760 --> 02:09:00,680
Each movement is economic. 
Wasted motion is wasted energy, 

2497
02:09:00,920 --> 02:09:03,480
and wasted energy is how you end
up as entertainment for the 

2498
02:09:03,480 --> 02:09:07,520
crowd in ways you didn't intend.
Titus watches from the 

2499
02:09:07,520 --> 02:09:10,200
sidelines, occasionally barking 
corrections. 

2500
02:09:10,760 --> 02:09:14,040
You're dancing, not fighting. 
This isn't a festival. 

2501
02:09:14,640 --> 02:09:17,320
His voice carries the authority 
of someone who's seen too many 

2502
02:09:17,320 --> 02:09:20,440
promising gladiators make simple
mistakes with permanent 

2503
02:09:20,440 --> 02:09:23,840
consequences. 
You adjust your stance, lower 

2504
02:09:23,840 --> 02:09:26,880
your centre of gravity, and try 
to look less like you're 

2505
02:09:26,880 --> 02:09:29,840
performing a religious ceremony 
and more like you're preparing 

2506
02:09:29,840 --> 02:09:33,280
for controlled violence. 
The wooden practice sword feels 

2507
02:09:33,280 --> 02:09:36,960
different from your real blade, 
lighter but somehow more 

2508
02:09:36,960 --> 02:09:39,760
awkward. 
It feels akin to attempting to 

2509
02:09:39,760 --> 02:09:42,360
write with a stick after 
becoming accustomed to a proper 

2510
02:09:42,360 --> 02:09:44,720
stylus. 
But the wooden sword won't 

2511
02:09:44,720 --> 02:09:47,720
accidentally remove important 
parts of your training partners,

2512
02:09:48,000 --> 02:09:51,480
which everyone appreciates. 
Gaius is your sparring partner 

2513
02:09:51,480 --> 02:09:54,360
today, which is both good news 
and bad news. 

2514
02:09:54,800 --> 02:09:58,640
Good news, he's reliable and 
won't try anything unnecessarily

2515
02:09:58,640 --> 02:10:01,360
creative that might result in an
unplanned trip to the medical 

2516
02:10:01,360 --> 02:10:04,520
tent. 
Bad news, he has the subtlety of

2517
02:10:04,560 --> 02:10:06,720
a falling tree and hits about as
hard as one. 

2518
02:10:07,000 --> 02:10:09,640
Your arms are going to feel like
overcooked noodles by the end of

2519
02:10:09,640 --> 02:10:11,800
this session. 
You circle each other in the 

2520
02:10:11,800 --> 02:10:14,480
sand, Shields up, wooden swords 
ready. 

2521
02:10:15,560 --> 02:10:18,360
The morning sun is climbing 
higher and you can already feel 

2522
02:10:18,360 --> 02:10:20,640
sweat beginning to gather under 
your leather armour. 

2523
02:10:21,520 --> 02:10:25,040
Gaius makes the first move, a 
straightforward attack that you 

2524
02:10:25,040 --> 02:10:27,360
see coming from roughly the next
province over. 

2525
02:10:27,880 --> 02:10:31,920
You parry, riposte, and dance 
backward as he follows up with a

2526
02:10:31,920 --> 02:10:34,480
shield bash that would have 
rearranged your face if it had 

2527
02:10:34,480 --> 02:10:37,880
connected better. 
Titus calls out, but you're 

2528
02:10:37,880 --> 02:10:40,280
still thinking too much. 
Trust your training. 

2529
02:10:40,520 --> 02:10:43,440
Trust your training. 
This is one of his most 

2530
02:10:43,440 --> 02:10:46,080
cherished sayings. 
While it may seem simple to 

2531
02:10:46,120 --> 02:10:48,720
utter, it becomes more 
challenging to execute when 

2532
02:10:48,720 --> 02:10:51,520
faced with a formidable 
opponent, even during training 

2533
02:10:51,520 --> 02:10:53,520
sessions. 
But you know what he means. 

2534
02:10:53,760 --> 02:10:56,400
The hours of repetition, the 
muscle memory built up through 

2535
02:10:56,400 --> 02:10:59,440
countless drills, it's all 
designed to work automatically 

2536
02:10:59,440 --> 02:11:02,240
when your conscious mind is busy
with other things, like staying 

2537
02:11:02,240 --> 02:11:05,120
alive. 
The sparring continues for what 

2538
02:11:05,120 --> 02:11:07,920
feels like hours, but is 
probably only 30 minutes. 

2539
02:11:08,480 --> 02:11:11,720
You and Gaius work through 
various scenarios, attacks from 

2540
02:11:11,720 --> 02:11:15,040
different angles, combinations 
of sword and shield work and 

2541
02:11:15,040 --> 02:11:16,960
defence against multiple 
opponents. 

2542
02:11:17,520 --> 02:11:20,760
By the end, the sand has managed
to find its way into places it 

2543
02:11:20,760 --> 02:11:23,120
shouldn't be, and you're both 
breathing heavily. 

2544
02:11:24,160 --> 02:11:27,040
Next comes strength training, 
which in your world means 

2545
02:11:27,040 --> 02:11:30,160
lifting heavy things and 
carrying them around until your 

2546
02:11:30,160 --> 02:11:31,920
muscles remember who's in 
charge. 

2547
02:11:32,640 --> 02:11:35,760
There are stone weights, water 
filled and forry, and a 

2548
02:11:35,760 --> 02:11:39,000
particularly unpleasant exercise
involving carrying your training

2549
02:11:39,000 --> 02:11:41,480
partner across the sand while he
tries to make your life 

2550
02:11:41,480 --> 02:11:43,880
difficult by refusing to 
cooperate. 

2551
02:11:44,480 --> 02:11:47,080
It's like moving furniture, if 
furniture were actively trying 

2552
02:11:47,080 --> 02:11:49,720
to make you drop it. 
The afternoon brings weapons 

2553
02:11:49,720 --> 02:11:51,520
training with different types of
equipment. 

2554
02:11:52,000 --> 02:11:55,560
Today it's net and Trident work,
which requires a completely 

2555
02:11:55,560 --> 02:11:57,600
different skill set from sword 
and shield. 

2556
02:11:58,280 --> 02:12:01,920
The net is deceptively tricky. 
It looks simple until you try to

2557
02:12:01,920 --> 02:12:04,920
throw it with any accuracy while
someone is actively trying to 

2558
02:12:04,920 --> 02:12:08,120
avoid being caught. 
It's like trying to catch a fish

2559
02:12:08,120 --> 02:12:10,680
with a blanket while the fish is
running away from you. 

2560
02:12:11,640 --> 02:12:14,920
The Trident is heavy and awkward
at first, but there's something 

2561
02:12:14,920 --> 02:12:17,240
satisfying about its reach and 
power. 

2562
02:12:17,800 --> 02:12:21,000
It's a weapon that demands 
respect, both from you and from 

2563
02:12:21,000 --> 02:12:24,240
anyone facing it. 
The three prongs make it 

2564
02:12:24,240 --> 02:12:27,440
excellent for defence, and the 
length gives you options that a 

2565
02:12:27,440 --> 02:12:30,840
shorter weapon doesn't provide. 
As the day's training winds 

2566
02:12:30,840 --> 02:12:33,200
down, you clean your equipment 
and store it properly. 

2567
02:12:33,800 --> 02:12:36,920
In the gladiator business, 
taking care of your gear isn't 

2568
02:12:36,920 --> 02:12:39,680
just good practice, it's a 
survival strategy. 

2569
02:12:40,280 --> 02:12:43,040
A rusty sword or a cracked 
shield can turn a manageable 

2570
02:12:43,040 --> 02:12:44,760
fight into a brief career 
change. 

2571
02:12:45,120 --> 02:12:48,240
Life in the Ludus isn't just 
about fighting, it's about 

2572
02:12:48,240 --> 02:12:51,160
mastering the complicated social
dynamics of a place where 

2573
02:12:51,160 --> 02:12:54,360
everyone's job involves 
potential violence, but somehow 

2574
02:12:54,400 --> 02:12:56,720
you all have to live together 
between the violent bits. 

2575
02:12:57,000 --> 02:12:59,040
It's like being in a very 
specialized boarding school 

2576
02:12:59,040 --> 02:13:01,200
where detention might involve 
permanent injury. 

2577
02:13:01,880 --> 02:13:04,360
You've learned to read the moods
and personalities of your fellow

2578
02:13:04,360 --> 02:13:07,320
gladiators the way a sailor 
reads weather patterns. 

2579
02:13:07,800 --> 02:13:11,400
There's Quintus, who gets Moody 
before fights and has a tendency

2580
02:13:11,400 --> 02:13:14,640
to pick arguments about nothing.
Smart money says to give him 

2581
02:13:14,640 --> 02:13:17,600
extra space when he starts 
complaining about the food, the 

2582
02:13:17,600 --> 02:13:20,160
weather, or the particular way 
someone else breathes. 

2583
02:13:21,320 --> 02:13:24,800
Felix goes silent before a 
match, as if saving his words 

2584
02:13:24,800 --> 02:13:27,000
for a future conversation he may
not live to have. 

2585
02:13:27,680 --> 02:13:30,720
The gladiator hierarchy is 
unspoken but clearly understood 

2586
02:13:30,720 --> 02:13:33,680
by everyone. 
Veterans like Titus occupy the 

2587
02:13:33,680 --> 02:13:35,840
top tier. 
They've survived long enough to 

2588
02:13:35,880 --> 02:13:39,160
earn respect, and more 
importantly, they've survived 

2589
02:13:39,160 --> 02:13:41,080
long enough to teach others how 
to survive. 

2590
02:13:41,840 --> 02:13:44,400
Below them are the established 
fighters who've proven 

2591
02:13:44,400 --> 02:13:47,280
themselves in the arena but 
haven't yet achieved legendary 

2592
02:13:47,280 --> 02:13:50,240
status. 
Then there are the newer 

2593
02:13:50,240 --> 02:13:53,280
gladiators, like yourself. 
You're still figuring out 

2594
02:13:53,280 --> 02:13:55,480
whether this career path was a 
choice or something that 

2595
02:13:55,480 --> 02:13:58,920
happened to them. 
At the bottom are the newcomers,

2596
02:13:59,360 --> 02:14:03,080
the ones who maintain a confused
expression, as if they're unsure

2597
02:14:03,080 --> 02:14:06,120
of their journey to this place. 
You remember having that look? 

2598
02:14:06,480 --> 02:14:09,520
Everyone does. 
It usually fades after the first

2599
02:14:09,520 --> 02:14:12,760
few training sessions, replaced 
by a more practical expression 

2600
02:14:12,760 --> 02:14:16,240
that says, well, this is 
happening, so I might as well 

2601
02:14:16,240 --> 02:14:19,360
get good at it. 
Marcus the La Nista is a 

2602
02:14:19,360 --> 02:14:21,840
businessman first and a patron 
of the arts second. 

2603
02:14:22,120 --> 02:14:25,320
If you consider gladiatorial 
combat and art form, he 

2604
02:14:25,320 --> 02:14:27,240
consistently expresses his 
thoughts. 

2605
02:14:27,640 --> 02:14:30,520
He expresses his opinions both 
loudly and frequently. 

2606
02:14:30,960 --> 02:14:33,640
He has opinions about fighting 
styles the way other people have

2607
02:14:33,640 --> 02:14:37,000
opinions about wine or poetry. 
He'll spend 20 minutes 

2608
02:14:37,000 --> 02:14:39,000
explaining why a particular 
shield technique is 

2609
02:14:39,000 --> 02:14:41,640
aesthetically superior to 
another while you stand there 

2610
02:14:41,640 --> 02:14:43,880
thinking about lunch and trying 
to look interested. 

2611
02:14:44,520 --> 02:14:47,200
But Marcus isn't cruel, just 
practical. 

2612
02:14:47,920 --> 02:14:50,800
Marcus views his gladiators as 
an investment that requires 

2613
02:14:50,800 --> 02:14:53,760
maintenance. 
The food is adequate, the 

2614
02:14:53,760 --> 02:14:57,040
medical care is surprisingly 
excellent, and he doesn't work 

2615
02:14:57,040 --> 02:14:58,880
anyone to the point of being 
useless. 

2616
02:14:59,440 --> 02:15:02,280
He's learned that half dead 
gladiators put on disappointing 

2617
02:15:02,280 --> 02:15:05,400
shows, and disappointing shows 
are bad for business. 

2618
02:15:06,120 --> 02:15:09,520
The Ludus Dr. A Greek named 
Demetrius, treats injuries with 

2619
02:15:09,520 --> 02:15:12,160
the efficiency of someone who's 
seen every possible way the 

2620
02:15:12,160 --> 02:15:14,040
human body can be damaged in 
combat. 

2621
02:15:14,640 --> 02:15:17,920
He's patched up everything from 
minor cuts to major sword 

2622
02:15:17,920 --> 02:15:20,600
wounds, and he does it all with 
the bedside manner of a 

2623
02:15:20,600 --> 02:15:22,800
particularly unsentimental 
accountant. 

2624
02:15:23,680 --> 02:15:27,120
Don't die is his most common 
medical advice, delivered in the

2625
02:15:27,120 --> 02:15:29,800
same tone someone might use to 
remind you to close a door 

2626
02:15:29,800 --> 02:15:32,920
behind you. 
Meals serve as communal affairs,

2627
02:15:33,160 --> 02:15:36,280
combining informal strategy 
sessions, gossip exchanges and 

2628
02:15:36,280 --> 02:15:38,960
group therapy. 
You learn which fighters are 

2629
02:15:38,960 --> 02:15:41,480
struggling with upcoming 
matches, who's been having 

2630
02:15:41,480 --> 02:15:44,320
nightmares, and whose family 
sent a letter from home. 

2631
02:15:44,840 --> 02:15:48,200
The conversations flow in a 
mixture of Latin, Etruscan and 

2632
02:15:48,200 --> 02:15:50,920
the occasional borrowed phrase 
from whatever distant province 

2633
02:15:50,920 --> 02:15:54,200
someone originally called home. 
Today's dinner conversation 

2634
02:15:54,200 --> 02:15:57,200
centres around rumours of a new 
type of gladiator being trained 

2635
02:15:57,200 --> 02:16:00,360
in Rome, fighters who 
specialized in some exotic 

2636
02:16:00,360 --> 02:16:04,200
weapon combination that sounds 
both impressive and impractical.

2637
02:16:04,840 --> 02:16:07,480
Everyone has theories about what
this development means for the 

2638
02:16:07,480 --> 02:16:10,440
profession, but most of those 
theories include complaints 

2639
02:16:10,440 --> 02:16:13,400
about young gladiators today and
how things were better in the 

2640
02:16:13,400 --> 02:16:16,520
past. 
In my time, says Cassius. 

2641
02:16:16,840 --> 02:16:19,040
He's been having his time for 
about 3 years now. 

2642
02:16:19,560 --> 02:16:22,920
Gladiators learned proper 
fundamentals, none of this fancy

2643
02:16:22,920 --> 02:16:25,760
showmanship. 
He waves his bread dramatically,

2644
02:16:26,080 --> 02:16:28,360
as if it were partially 
responsible for the decline of 

2645
02:16:28,360 --> 02:16:31,400
gladiatorial standards. 
You listen with half an ear 

2646
02:16:31,400 --> 02:16:33,920
while working on your dinner, 
which tonight includes what 

2647
02:16:33,920 --> 02:16:38,000
might be chicken or rabbit or 
possibly something else entirely

2648
02:16:38,000 --> 02:16:40,040
that's been seasoned 
aggressively enough to make 

2649
02:16:40,040 --> 02:16:44,639
identification unnecessary. 
The meat is tender, whatever it 

2650
02:16:44,639 --> 02:16:46,719
is, and that's really what 
matters. 

2651
02:16:47,799 --> 02:16:50,240
After dinner, there's a brief 
period of spare time before 

2652
02:16:50,240 --> 02:16:52,920
lights out. 
Some gladiators spend this time 

2653
02:16:52,920 --> 02:16:56,000
writing letters to family. 
Others practice simple crafts 

2654
02:16:56,000 --> 02:16:57,719
like leather working or wood 
carving. 

2655
02:16:58,360 --> 02:17:01,680
A few gather around whoever has 
the best voice for storytelling,

2656
02:17:02,040 --> 02:17:05,480
listening to tales of famous 
battles, legendary gladiators, 

2657
02:17:05,799 --> 02:17:08,200
or occasionally just funny 
stories about things that 

2658
02:17:08,200 --> 02:17:10,879
happened in other cities. 
The summons arrives on a 

2659
02:17:10,879 --> 02:17:12,959
Tuesday, which somehow worsens 
it. 

2660
02:17:13,520 --> 02:17:16,080
Tuesdays are supposed to be for 
routine training and equipment 

2661
02:17:16,080 --> 02:17:18,799
maintenance, not for life 
altering announcements. 

2662
02:17:19,200 --> 02:17:21,840
But there's Marcus standing in 
the courtyard with that 

2663
02:17:21,840 --> 02:17:24,520
particular expression. 
That means someone's about to 

2664
02:17:24,520 --> 02:17:26,760
have their schedule dramatically
rearranged. 

2665
02:17:27,559 --> 02:17:31,000
We have a match, He announces, 
consulting a wax tablet covered 

2666
02:17:31,000 --> 02:17:34,200
in what looks like notes written
by someone with either terrible 

2667
02:17:34,200 --> 02:17:38,879
handwriting or very shaky hands.
Local magistrate is hosting 

2668
02:17:38,879 --> 02:17:43,160
games for his son's coming of 
age. 3 days from now, you 

2669
02:17:43,160 --> 02:17:45,559
experience that peculiar 
dropping sensation in your 

2670
02:17:45,559 --> 02:17:48,920
stomach, similar to the feeling 
of stepping off a Cliff in the 

2671
02:17:48,920 --> 02:17:52,040
dark. 3 days. 
That's enough time to worry 

2672
02:17:52,040 --> 02:17:54,360
about it, but not enough time to
do anything productive with the 

2673
02:17:54,360 --> 02:17:56,559
worrying. 
It's akin to receiving an 

2674
02:17:56,559 --> 02:17:59,520
invitation to a dinner party, 
only to discover that the guests

2675
02:17:59,520 --> 02:18:01,080
are plotting your death for 
amusement. 

2676
02:18:02,160 --> 02:18:03,879
The match details are 
straightforward enough. 

2677
02:18:04,240 --> 02:18:07,080
You'll be fighting against a 
gladiator from a rival school in

2678
02:18:07,080 --> 02:18:09,879
the next town over. 
The match will involve standard 

2679
02:18:09,879 --> 02:18:12,840
sword and shield combat, with 
the winner being the first to 

2680
02:18:12,840 --> 02:18:15,760
surrender, or more accurately, 
the first to lose the ability to

2681
02:18:15,760 --> 02:18:18,200
surrender. 
The crowd will be relatively 

2682
02:18:18,200 --> 02:18:22,400
small, maybe 200 people, but 
that's still 200 people who will

2683
02:18:22,400 --> 02:18:24,840
be watching you try to stay 
alive while someone else tries 

2684
02:18:24,840 --> 02:18:28,280
to prevent that from happening. 
Marcus reads off a few more 

2685
02:18:28,280 --> 02:18:31,280
details. 
The time of day, afternoon, 

2686
02:18:31,360 --> 02:18:34,520
which is good because the light 
will be consistent, the expected

2687
02:18:34,520 --> 02:18:38,160
duration, however long it takes,
and the prize money, which will 

2688
02:18:38,160 --> 02:18:41,200
be divided between the school 
and the gladiator, assuming the 

2689
02:18:41,200 --> 02:18:43,559
gladiator is in a position to 
spend money afterward. 

2690
02:18:44,480 --> 02:18:47,440
After the announcement, the 
other gladiators offer the usual

2691
02:18:47,440 --> 02:18:49,719
mixture of encouragement and 
practical advice. 

2692
02:18:50,600 --> 02:18:53,639
Remember to keep your shield up,
says Lucius, as if you might 

2693
02:18:53,639 --> 02:18:57,200
forget this crucial detail. 
Don't let him get inside your 

2694
02:18:57,200 --> 02:19:00,920
guard, adds Gaius, which is also
helpful in the way that try not 

2695
02:19:00,920 --> 02:19:04,320
to get hit is beneficial. 
But their concern is genuine, 

2696
02:19:04,559 --> 02:19:08,000
even if their advice is obvious.
In the gladiator business, 

2697
02:19:08,080 --> 02:19:11,120
everyone understands that each 
fight can be someone's last, and

2698
02:19:11,120 --> 02:19:13,480
that knowledge creates a 
particular kind of camaraderie. 

2699
02:19:13,959 --> 02:19:16,719
You're all in the same boat, 
even if you're taking turns 

2700
02:19:16,719 --> 02:19:18,320
rowing while the others bail 
water. 

2701
02:19:19,520 --> 02:19:22,879
The next three days pass in a 
blur of intensified training and

2702
02:19:22,879 --> 02:19:26,200
mental preparation. 
Titus works with you on specific

2703
02:19:26,200 --> 02:19:28,959
techniques, drilling 
combinations until they become 

2704
02:19:28,959 --> 02:19:32,160
automatic Muscle memory, he 
keeps saying. 

2705
02:19:32,760 --> 02:19:35,480
When your brain is busy trying 
not to panic, your muscles need 

2706
02:19:35,480 --> 02:19:38,040
to know what to do. 
Without instruction, you 

2707
02:19:38,040 --> 02:19:40,480
practice against different 
opponents, each with their 

2708
02:19:40,480 --> 02:19:42,920
fighting style, trying to 
prepare for whatever approach 

2709
02:19:42,920 --> 02:19:46,400
your actual opponent might use. 
Will he be aggressive and try to

2710
02:19:46,440 --> 02:19:50,080
overwhelm you quickly? 
Defensive and patient, waiting 

2711
02:19:50,080 --> 02:19:52,640
for you to make a mistake? 
He may be tricky and 

2712
02:19:52,640 --> 02:19:55,520
unpredictable, varying his 
tactics to keep you on your 

2713
02:19:55,520 --> 02:19:57,720
toes. 
There's no way to know until 

2714
02:19:57,720 --> 02:19:59,520
you're actually facing him in 
the sand. 

2715
02:20:00,960 --> 02:20:03,240
The night before the fight, 
sleep fluctuates. 

2716
02:20:03,760 --> 02:20:06,480
You think about all the things 
that could go wrong, then try 

2717
02:20:06,480 --> 02:20:08,840
not to think about them. 
But that makes you think about 

2718
02:20:08,840 --> 02:20:10,960
them more. 
It's like trying not to think 

2719
02:20:10,960 --> 02:20:13,680
about elephants. 
The harder you try, the more 

2720
02:20:13,680 --> 02:20:15,640
elephants show up in your mental
landscape. 

2721
02:20:16,280 --> 02:20:19,120
Eventually you give up on sleep 
and spend the pre dawn hours in 

2722
02:20:19,120 --> 02:20:22,440
quiet meditation going through 
the fight mentally visualizing 

2723
02:20:22,440 --> 02:20:24,600
different scenarios and your 
responses to them. 

2724
02:20:25,800 --> 02:20:27,800
This is another thing Titus 
taught you. 

2725
02:20:28,360 --> 02:20:30,080
Fight the battle in your head 
first. 

2726
02:20:30,400 --> 02:20:32,800
Work out the problems. 
When the steaks are imaginary, 

2727
02:20:33,400 --> 02:20:36,320
dawn arrives with its usual lack
of consideration for whether 

2728
02:20:36,320 --> 02:20:39,920
you're ready for it or not. 
Today is the day your breakfast 

2729
02:20:39,920 --> 02:20:42,960
tastes like sand, though that 
might be because there's actual 

2730
02:20:42,960 --> 02:20:45,400
sand in it. 
The morning bread sometimes 

2731
02:20:45,400 --> 02:20:49,000
picks up unexpected ingredients 
from the Baker's workspace, or 

2732
02:20:49,000 --> 02:20:51,720
it might be because your mouth 
is dry with anticipation. 

2733
02:20:52,160 --> 02:20:54,440
You check your equipment one 
final time. 

2734
02:20:54,880 --> 02:20:59,840
Sword sharp and balanced, shield
solid and properly gripped, 

2735
02:21:00,280 --> 02:21:04,000
armour fitted and secure. 
Everything is as ready as it can

2736
02:21:04,000 --> 02:21:05,800
be. 
Now it's just a matter of 

2737
02:21:05,800 --> 02:21:07,960
getting yourself to the same 
state of readiness. 

2738
02:21:08,320 --> 02:21:11,600
The arena is smaller than you 
expected, but somehow that makes

2739
02:21:11,600 --> 02:21:13,720
it more intimate and therefore 
more nerve racking. 

2740
02:21:14,320 --> 02:21:16,560
It's like being invited to 
perform in someone's living 

2741
02:21:16,560 --> 02:21:20,240
room, except the performance 
involves mortal combat and the 

2742
02:21:20,240 --> 02:21:22,840
living room is filled with 
people who've paid to watch you 

2743
02:21:22,840 --> 02:21:25,680
possibly die. 
The crowd is already gathering 

2744
02:21:25,680 --> 02:21:28,680
as you arrive, and you can hear 
the buzz of conversation and 

2745
02:21:28,680 --> 02:21:31,560
anticipation. 
There's something about the 

2746
02:21:31,560 --> 02:21:35,080
sound of a crowd that's both 
energizing and terrifying, all 

2747
02:21:35,080 --> 02:21:37,760
those voices blending together 
into a collective murmur of 

2748
02:21:37,760 --> 02:21:40,840
expectation. 
They're here to see a show, and 

2749
02:21:40,840 --> 02:21:42,320
you're one of the main 
attractions. 

2750
02:21:42,320 --> 02:21:44,360
Whether you feel ready for the 
spotlight or not. 

2751
02:21:44,960 --> 02:21:47,320
Your opponent is already in the 
preparation area when you 

2752
02:21:47,320 --> 02:21:49,320
arrive. 
He's about your height, but 

2753
02:21:49,320 --> 02:21:52,000
broader through the shoulders 
with the kind of build that 

2754
02:21:52,000 --> 02:21:54,120
suggests he's been doing his job
for a while. 

2755
02:21:54,640 --> 02:21:57,080
His equipment looks well 
maintained and professional, 

2756
02:21:57,440 --> 02:21:59,920
always a bad sign when you're 
hoping for an easy match. 

2757
02:22:00,720 --> 02:22:03,960
He nods politely when he sees 
you, which is somehow more 

2758
02:22:03,960 --> 02:22:06,040
unsettling than if he'd tried to
intimidate you. 

2759
02:22:06,720 --> 02:22:09,120
Polite opponents are often the 
most dangerous ones. 

2760
02:22:09,640 --> 02:22:12,000
The preparation ritual helps 
calm your nerves through its 

2761
02:22:12,000 --> 02:22:15,400
very familiarity. 
You apply oil to your skin to 

2762
02:22:15,400 --> 02:22:19,320
avoid grappling, conduct a final
inspection of your weapons, and 

2763
02:22:19,320 --> 02:22:21,280
make necessary adjustments to 
your armour. 

2764
02:22:21,840 --> 02:22:24,400
Demetrius the Ludus Dr. gives 
you a quick physical 

2765
02:22:24,400 --> 02:22:28,160
examination, checking your 
joints, your reflexes and your 

2766
02:22:28,160 --> 02:22:30,280
general state of not yet being 
injured. 

2767
02:22:31,120 --> 02:22:34,200
Try to stay that way, he 
advises, which is both helpful 

2768
02:22:34,200 --> 02:22:36,880
and obvious. 
Marcus appears for a final 

2769
02:22:36,880 --> 02:22:39,880
consultation, offering last 
minute strategy advice and 

2770
02:22:39,880 --> 02:22:41,880
reminders about things you've 
known for months. 

2771
02:22:42,640 --> 02:22:45,040
But his presence is reassuring 
in the way that having a 

2772
02:22:45,040 --> 02:22:47,800
familiar face around is always 
reassuring when you're about to 

2773
02:22:47,800 --> 02:22:49,480
do something that might end 
badly. 

2774
02:22:50,240 --> 02:22:54,000
Remember, he says, the crowd 
wants a fantastic show, but they

2775
02:22:54,000 --> 02:22:56,760
also want to see skill. 
Don't just survive. 

2776
02:22:57,200 --> 02:23:00,080
Demonstrate your training. 
Make it clear that you belong in

2777
02:23:00,080 --> 02:23:03,400
there. 
The waiting is the worst part. 

2778
02:23:03,880 --> 02:23:06,320
You can hear the preliminary 
events happening in the arena, 

2779
02:23:06,720 --> 02:23:09,920
animal hunts, minor exhibitions 
and warm up acts that get the 

2780
02:23:09,920 --> 02:23:12,240
crowd interested and ready for 
the main events. 

2781
02:23:13,000 --> 02:23:15,800
Each cheer from the audience 
marks another step closer to 

2782
02:23:15,800 --> 02:23:18,760
your turn in the sand. 
Finally, it's time. 

2783
02:23:19,200 --> 02:23:21,560
The arena official comes to 
collect you, and you walk 

2784
02:23:21,560 --> 02:23:23,880
through the tunnel that leads 
from the preparation area to the

2785
02:23:23,880 --> 02:23:26,880
fighting ground. 
The tunnel is cool and shadowy, 

2786
02:23:27,360 --> 02:23:30,040
A brief respite before you 
emerge into the bright sunlight 

2787
02:23:30,040 --> 02:23:33,280
and the noise of the crowd. 
The arena floor is pristine 

2788
02:23:33,280 --> 02:23:36,360
white, sand raked smooth and 
ready for action. 

2789
02:23:36,960 --> 02:23:40,120
The afternoon sun casts sharp 
shadows from the arena walls, 

2790
02:23:40,440 --> 02:23:43,120
creating areas of bright light 
and relative darkness that 

2791
02:23:43,120 --> 02:23:44,800
you'll need to navigate during 
the fight. 

2792
02:23:45,720 --> 02:23:48,800
The crowd noise hits you like a 
physical force as you enter. 

2793
02:23:49,320 --> 02:23:53,600
Cheers, calls, conversations, 
and the rustling of fabric as 

2794
02:23:53,600 --> 02:23:56,840
people shift in their seats. 
You and your opponent are 

2795
02:23:56,840 --> 02:23:59,800
introduced to the crowd, though 
the announcer gets your name 

2796
02:23:59,800 --> 02:24:02,120
slightly wrong in a way that 
makes you sound like you're from

2797
02:24:02,120 --> 02:24:05,640
a different province entirely, 
The crowd doesn't seem to mind. 

2798
02:24:06,040 --> 02:24:09,760
The crowd cheers appropriately, 
assessing both fighters with the

2799
02:24:09,760 --> 02:24:12,280
experienced eye of those 
familiar with such events. 

2800
02:24:12,960 --> 02:24:15,720
The magistrate who's hosting the
games makes a brief speech about

2801
02:24:15,720 --> 02:24:19,320
courage, skill, and the noble 
tradition of gladiatorial 

2802
02:24:19,320 --> 02:24:22,040
combat. 
He's clearly enjoying his role 

2803
02:24:22,040 --> 02:24:25,320
as patron of the arts, gesturing
broadly and speaking with the 

2804
02:24:25,320 --> 02:24:28,600
kind of enthusiasm that comes 
from not being the one holding a

2805
02:24:28,600 --> 02:24:32,880
sword. 
Then comes the final ritual, the

2806
02:24:32,880 --> 02:24:35,240
salute to the audience, the 
acknowledgement of the 

2807
02:24:35,240 --> 02:24:37,920
magistrate, and the formal 
beginning of the combat. 

2808
02:24:38,720 --> 02:24:41,800
Your opponent raises his sword 
and shield, and you mirror the 

2809
02:24:41,800 --> 02:24:44,200
gesture. 
The crowd falls relatively 

2810
02:24:44,200 --> 02:24:46,640
quiet, sensing that the real 
show is about to begin. 

2811
02:24:47,240 --> 02:24:50,760
The referee, an experienced 
former gladiator himself, checks

2812
02:24:50,760 --> 02:24:54,000
that both fighters are ready, 
examines the weapons one last 

2813
02:24:54,000 --> 02:24:56,400
time, and steps back to the edge
of the combat area. 

2814
02:24:57,120 --> 02:25:00,320
Start, he shouts, and there's no
more waiting, preparing, or 

2815
02:25:00,320 --> 02:25:02,120
worrying. 
Now there's only what is 

2816
02:25:02,120 --> 02:25:04,800
happening. 
Your opponent moves first, a 

2817
02:25:04,800 --> 02:25:07,880
cautious advance that tells you 
he's experienced enough not to 

2818
02:25:07,880 --> 02:25:11,560
rush into anything stupid. 
Such behaviour is both good news

2819
02:25:11,560 --> 02:25:14,160
and bad news. 
Good because you won't have to 

2820
02:25:14,160 --> 02:25:17,280
deal with reckless aggression. 
Bad because it means he knows 

2821
02:25:17,280 --> 02:25:19,440
what he's doing and plans to do 
it competently. 

2822
02:25:19,920 --> 02:25:22,800
You circle each other in the 
sand, Shields up, swords ready, 

2823
02:25:22,800 --> 02:25:24,920
each trying to read the other's 
intentions. 

2824
02:25:26,160 --> 02:25:28,920
The crowd noise fades into 
background static as your 

2825
02:25:28,920 --> 02:25:31,760
attention narrows to focus on 
the person trying to hurt you in

2826
02:25:31,760 --> 02:25:36,080
a professional capacity. 
His footwork is solid, his guard

2827
02:25:36,080 --> 02:25:39,840
position textbook perfect. 
The task is going to require 

2828
02:25:39,840 --> 02:25:42,840
actual effort. 
He tests your defenses with a 

2829
02:25:42,840 --> 02:25:46,760
series of quick attacks, nothing
committed, just probing strikes 

2830
02:25:46,760 --> 02:25:50,480
to see how you respond. 
Your Paris are automatic, muscle

2831
02:25:50,480 --> 02:25:52,480
memory taking over as tight as 
predicted. 

2832
02:25:53,080 --> 02:25:56,240
Despite the artificial nature of
the situation, the familiar 

2833
02:25:56,240 --> 02:25:59,560
weight of the sword and shield, 
the resistance of blade against 

2834
02:25:59,560 --> 02:26:03,200
blade, and the small adjustments
of stance and position all feel 

2835
02:26:03,200 --> 02:26:06,320
natural. 
The first real exchange happens 

2836
02:26:06,320 --> 02:26:09,400
when he commits to an overhead 
strike that you deflect with 

2837
02:26:09,400 --> 02:26:12,880
your shield, following up with a
thrust that he barely avoids. 

2838
02:26:13,320 --> 02:26:15,440
The crowd responds with 
appreciative noise. 

2839
02:26:15,760 --> 02:26:18,200
They can tell the difference 
between tentative testing and 

2840
02:26:18,200 --> 02:26:21,240
actual combat. 
Your opponent steps back, 

2841
02:26:21,560 --> 02:26:24,680
reassessing, and you take the 
opportunity to do the same. 

2842
02:26:25,240 --> 02:26:28,240
He's favouring his right side 
slightly, which might indicate 

2843
02:26:28,240 --> 02:26:30,480
an old injury or just a natural 
tendency. 

2844
02:26:31,120 --> 02:26:33,480
His shield work is defensive, 
but not passive. 

2845
02:26:34,080 --> 02:26:36,480
He's using it to set up his 
attacks rather than just 

2846
02:26:36,480 --> 02:26:39,080
blocking yours. 
This tactical thinking is a 

2847
02:26:39,080 --> 02:26:40,920
result of his experience and 
training. 

2848
02:26:41,480 --> 02:26:44,560
You try a different approach, 
varying your attack angles and 

2849
02:26:44,560 --> 02:26:48,240
timing to keep him guessing. 
You execute a low cut, a high 

2850
02:26:48,240 --> 02:26:51,520
thrust, and a shield bash, 
compelling him to concede. 

2851
02:26:52,080 --> 02:26:54,480
He responds with a combination 
that nearly gets through your 

2852
02:26:54,480 --> 02:26:57,480
guard, the tip of his blade 
passing close enough to your 

2853
02:26:57,480 --> 02:27:00,240
ribs to remind you that the 
battle isn't a training 

2854
02:27:00,240 --> 02:27:03,360
exercise. 
The fight develops a rhythm. 

2855
02:27:03,800 --> 02:27:08,160
Advance, attack, defend, 
reassess, repeat. 

2856
02:27:09,000 --> 02:27:11,640
Both of you are breathing harder
now, sweat making your grip 

2857
02:27:11,640 --> 02:27:14,200
slippery despite the leather 
wrapping on your sword handle. 

2858
02:27:14,760 --> 02:27:18,360
The sand shifts under your feet,
creating small challenges in 

2859
02:27:18,360 --> 02:27:21,320
footing that add another layer 
of complexity to the combat. 

2860
02:27:22,080 --> 02:27:25,600
Minutes pass, though they feel 
like hours now. 

2861
02:27:25,600 --> 02:27:28,960
The crowd engages, applauding 
particularly skillful moves from

2862
02:27:29,000 --> 02:27:31,120
either fighter. 
You hear voices giving 

2863
02:27:31,120 --> 02:27:33,080
contradictory and unhelpful 
advice. 

2864
02:27:33,680 --> 02:27:36,600
Your opponent tries a new 
strategy, pressing his attack 

2865
02:27:36,600 --> 02:27:39,760
more aggressively, trying to 
overwhelm your defences through 

2866
02:27:39,760 --> 02:27:42,560
sheer persistence. 
It's a dangerous game. 

2867
02:27:43,000 --> 02:27:45,800
Aggressive attacks create 
opportunities for your opponent,

2868
02:27:46,120 --> 02:27:48,080
but they also create 
opportunities for you. 

2869
02:27:48,680 --> 02:27:51,760
You weather his initial assault,
then counter with a combination 

2870
02:27:51,760 --> 02:27:53,920
that drives him back toward the 
arena wall. 

2871
02:27:54,680 --> 02:27:57,280
Cornering an opponent is 
advantageous, but also 

2872
02:27:57,280 --> 02:27:59,640
dangerous. 
Desperate fighters do 

2873
02:27:59,640 --> 02:28:02,840
unpredictable things, and 
predictability is one of the few

2874
02:28:02,840 --> 02:28:04,240
allies you have in this 
business. 

2875
02:28:04,840 --> 02:28:07,200
He proves the point by 
attempting a move that's either 

2876
02:28:07,200 --> 02:28:10,200
brilliant or suicidal, a 
spinning attack that would 

2877
02:28:10,200 --> 02:28:13,200
either take your head off or 
leave him completely exposed. 

2878
02:28:13,840 --> 02:28:16,120
It turns out to be more suicidal
than brilliant. 

2879
02:28:16,560 --> 02:28:20,040
You deftly sidestep the attack, 
delivering a powerful thrust 

2880
02:28:20,040 --> 02:28:22,160
that pierces his guard and hits 
his sword arm. 

2881
02:28:22,920 --> 02:28:26,880
It's not enough to disable him, 
but it's enough to slow him down

2882
02:28:26,880 --> 02:28:29,880
and signal to both of you that 
the fight has escalated to a new

2883
02:28:29,880 --> 02:28:33,600
level of seriousness. 
He backs away, shaking his arm 

2884
02:28:33,600 --> 02:28:36,480
to restore feeling, and 
reassesses his situation. 

2885
02:28:37,200 --> 02:28:39,680
You can see him thinking, 
calculating odds, and 

2886
02:28:39,680 --> 02:28:42,960
considering his options. 
The crowd can sense the shift in

2887
02:28:42,960 --> 02:28:46,160
momentum, too. 
Their noise level increases as 

2888
02:28:46,160 --> 02:28:50,480
they anticipate a resolution, 
but experienced gladiators don't

2889
02:28:50,480 --> 02:28:53,320
give up easily, and your 
opponent is nothing if not 

2890
02:28:53,320 --> 02:28:56,320
experienced. 
He adjusts his grip to 

2891
02:28:56,320 --> 02:28:59,320
compensate for his injured arm 
and settles into a more 

2892
02:28:59,320 --> 02:29:02,880
defensive stance, making you 
come to him rather than 

2893
02:29:02,880 --> 02:29:04,600
continuing his aggressive 
approach. 

2894
02:29:04,960 --> 02:29:08,000
The final phase of the fight is 
a careful dance of patience and 

2895
02:29:08,000 --> 02:29:10,800
opportunity. 
Your opponent, nursing his 

2896
02:29:10,800 --> 02:29:13,880
injured arm, has become more 
cautious, but also more 

2897
02:29:13,880 --> 02:29:17,360
dangerous, in the same way that 
cornered animals become more 

2898
02:29:17,360 --> 02:29:20,240
dangerous. 
He now has nothing to lose, 

2899
02:29:20,600 --> 02:29:23,200
which makes him unpredictable 
and precisely the way you were 

2900
02:29:23,200 --> 02:29:25,920
hoping to avoid. 
You press your advantage 

2901
02:29:25,920 --> 02:29:29,360
carefully, not wanting to rush 
into a trap but also not wanting

2902
02:29:29,360 --> 02:29:33,480
to let him recover fully. 
The crowd senses the approaching

2903
02:29:33,480 --> 02:29:35,680
climax, and their voices rise 
accordingly. 

2904
02:29:36,200 --> 02:29:39,000
Someone is shouting what sounds 
like betting odds, though the 

2905
02:29:39,000 --> 02:29:41,200
numbers are changing faster than
you can follow. 

2906
02:29:41,760 --> 02:29:44,880
Your opponent tries one more 
aggressive combination, putting 

2907
02:29:44,880 --> 02:29:47,520
everything into a series of 
attacks that would either finish

2908
02:29:47,520 --> 02:29:50,760
the fight quickly or leave him 
completely exposed. 

2909
02:29:51,280 --> 02:29:53,560
It's a calculated risk that 
almost pays off. 

2910
02:29:54,080 --> 02:29:57,200
His first strike gets through 
your guard and scores a shallow 

2911
02:29:57,200 --> 02:30:00,480
cut across your ribs, drawing 
blood and reminding you that the

2912
02:30:00,480 --> 02:30:02,040
fight isn't over until it's 
over. 

2913
02:30:02,480 --> 02:30:06,320
However, his follow up attack 
lags slightly as his injured arm

2914
02:30:06,320 --> 02:30:10,400
fails to respond as expected. 
You parry his thrust encounter 

2915
02:30:10,640 --> 02:30:13,560
with a move Titus drilled into 
you so many times you could do 

2916
02:30:13,560 --> 02:30:16,320
it while sleeping. 
A shield bash to create 

2917
02:30:16,320 --> 02:30:19,880
distance, followed immediately 
by a thrust that gets past his 

2918
02:30:19,880 --> 02:30:22,760
guard and finds the gap between 
his armour plates. 

2919
02:30:23,600 --> 02:30:26,800
The point of your sword comes to
rest against his chest, just 

2920
02:30:26,800 --> 02:30:29,640
above his heart. 
It's not profound enough to 

2921
02:30:29,640 --> 02:30:32,800
inflict significant harm, yet 
your placement is accurate 

2922
02:30:32,800 --> 02:30:35,840
enough to indicate that his next
move could prove lethal if he 

2923
02:30:35,840 --> 02:30:39,960
persists in fighting. 
For a moment, everything stops. 

2924
02:30:40,360 --> 02:30:43,520
The crowd noise fades to near 
silence as everyone waits to see

2925
02:30:43,520 --> 02:30:46,440
what happens next. 
Your opponent looks down at the 

2926
02:30:46,440 --> 02:30:49,400
sword point, then backs up to 
your eyes and makes his 

2927
02:30:49,400 --> 02:30:53,320
decision. 
A yield, he says loud enough for

2928
02:30:53,320 --> 02:30:55,040
the referee and the crowd to 
hear clearly. 

2929
02:30:56,320 --> 02:30:59,440
The crowd cheers for your win 
and the fight's quality. 

2930
02:30:59,960 --> 02:31:04,680
This is what they came to see. 
Skill, courage and a contest 

2931
02:31:04,680 --> 02:31:07,400
decided by ability rather than 
luck or accident. 

2932
02:31:08,000 --> 02:31:10,680
You step back and lower your 
sword, acknowledging your 

2933
02:31:10,680 --> 02:31:13,000
opponent's surrender with the 
respect due to someone who 

2934
02:31:13,000 --> 02:31:17,000
fought well and honourably. 
The magistrate rises from his 

2935
02:31:17,000 --> 02:31:19,880
seat and renders the official 
decision, though it was never 

2936
02:31:19,880 --> 02:31:21,840
really in doubt once the yield 
was declared. 

2937
02:31:22,480 --> 02:31:25,360
The crowd continues to cheer as 
you and your opponents salute 

2938
02:31:25,360 --> 02:31:28,280
each other in the audience. 
The formal conclusion to the 

2939
02:31:28,280 --> 02:31:31,320
formal combat. 
Back in the preparation area, 

2940
02:31:31,560 --> 02:31:34,560
Demetrius examines your cut and 
declares it superficial enough 

2941
02:31:34,560 --> 02:31:37,800
to heal without complications. 
Your opponent, whose name you 

2942
02:31:37,800 --> 02:31:41,320
finally learn is Servius, turns 
out to be a decent person who's 

2943
02:31:41,320 --> 02:31:43,280
been doing his job for about as 
long as you have. 

2944
02:31:43,960 --> 02:31:46,360
You share a cup of wine and 
compare notes about fighting 

2945
02:31:46,360 --> 02:31:49,480
techniques, training methods and
the particular challenges of 

2946
02:31:49,480 --> 02:31:51,360
making a living through combat 
sports. 

2947
02:31:51,920 --> 02:31:55,920
Good fight, he says, means it. 
That last combination was well 

2948
02:31:55,920 --> 02:31:57,880
executed. 
Your instructor knows his 

2949
02:31:57,880 --> 02:32:01,440
business, you agree, thinking of
Titus and his endless drilling 

2950
02:32:01,440 --> 02:32:05,640
of fundamental techniques. 
Muscle memory, you say, echoing 

2951
02:32:05,640 --> 02:32:08,640
his favorite phrase. 
When your brain gets busy, your 

2952
02:32:08,640 --> 02:32:12,360
muscles need to know what to do.
The ride back to the ludus is 

2953
02:32:12,360 --> 02:32:15,160
quiet and comfortable. 
Marcus is pleased with your 

2954
02:32:15,160 --> 02:32:17,680
performance. 
Not just the victory, but the 

2955
02:32:17,680 --> 02:32:20,760
way you achieved it. 
Good technique, good 

2956
02:32:20,760 --> 02:32:23,440
sportsmanship, good 
entertainment value, he 

2957
02:32:23,440 --> 02:32:26,280
summarizes. 
The magistrate was impressed the

2958
02:32:26,280 --> 02:32:28,480
experience could lead to more 
opportunities. 

2959
02:32:29,000 --> 02:32:31,320
More opportunities in your 
business. 

2960
02:32:31,320 --> 02:32:33,600
That's both positive news and 
something to think carefully 

2961
02:32:33,600 --> 02:32:35,840
about. 
More opportunities mean more 

2962
02:32:35,840 --> 02:32:38,480
prize money and more 
recognition, but they also mean 

2963
02:32:38,480 --> 02:32:40,960
more chances for things to go 
wrong in permanent ways. 

2964
02:32:41,320 --> 02:32:42,840
But that's a concern for 
tomorrow. 

2965
02:32:43,200 --> 02:32:46,280
Tonight you're back in your 
familiar cell with your familiar

2966
02:32:46,280 --> 02:32:48,880
thin mattress and your familiar 
view of the Stonewall. 

2967
02:32:49,400 --> 02:32:52,480
Your equipment is cleaned and 
stored, your small wound is 

2968
02:32:52,480 --> 02:32:56,120
bandaged and healing, and you're
alive and relatively intact. 

2969
02:32:56,720 --> 02:33:00,000
You fall asleep to the sound of 
Gaia snoring and the distant 

2970
02:33:00,000 --> 02:33:03,000
murmur of your fellow gladiators
discussing the day's events. 

2971
02:33:03,480 --> 02:33:06,160
Tomorrow will bring more 
training, more preparation, and 

2972
02:33:06,360 --> 02:33:09,840
eventually more fights. 
But tonight you're simply a 

2973
02:33:09,840 --> 02:33:13,840
person who went to work, did 
their job competently, and came 

2974
02:33:13,840 --> 02:33:16,560
home safely. 
In the gladiator business, 

2975
02:33:16,560 --> 02:33:18,120
that's the pinnacle of success.