Fall Asleep to Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire | Boring History

1
00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:03,900
Tonight, my tired little ones. 
We drift across the open, step 

2
00:00:03,900 --> 00:00:09,400
into a world shaped by wind 
distance, and a man whose name 

3
00:00:09,400 --> 00:00:10,900
traveled farther than he ever 
did. 

4
00:00:10,900 --> 00:00:14,600
Genghis, Khan ruled an Empire 
held together, not by walls or 

5
00:00:14,600 --> 00:00:20,000
cities, but by movement memory 
and an unusual sense of order in

6
00:00:20,000 --> 00:00:23,800
a vast Restless world. 
If you enjoy these slow Journeys

7
00:00:23,800 --> 00:00:26,500
through history, you can like 
the video subscribe, and let me 

8
00:00:26,508 --> 00:00:27,700
know where you're listening 
from. 

9
00:00:27,700 --> 00:00:31,400
And what time it is. 
Now dim the lights, let a fan or

10
00:00:31,400 --> 00:00:34,300
soft background noise. 
Fill the room and allow the 

11
00:00:34,300 --> 00:00:38,900
night to settle in. your 
standing on the Mongolian steppe

12
00:00:38,900 --> 00:00:42,700
and the first thing that strikes
you isn't the silents It's the 

13
00:00:42,700 --> 00:00:46,100
wind, it moves across. 
These grasslands like water over

14
00:00:46,100 --> 00:00:49,700
Stone constant and patient 
carrying with it. 

15
00:00:49,700 --> 00:00:53,500
The smell of wild thyme and the 
distant promise of rain, the 

16
00:00:53,500 --> 00:00:55,900
grass itself, stretches in every
direction. 

17
00:00:56,900 --> 00:00:59,900
Sea of green and gold that 
ripples in waves. 

18
00:00:59,900 --> 00:01:03,200
When the wind picks up and you 
realize quickly that this 

19
00:01:03,200 --> 00:01:08,100
landscape, doesn't just surround
you, it consumes you make you 

20
00:01:08,100 --> 00:01:10,800
small, And teaches you that 
survived. 

21
00:01:10,800 --> 00:01:14,000
All he means reading the land 
the way others read books. 

22
00:01:14,000 --> 00:01:16,900
The sky overhead is impossibly 
blue. 

23
00:01:16,900 --> 00:01:19,700
The kind of blew that makes you 
understand why these people 

24
00:01:19,700 --> 00:01:22,600
would later call it the Eternal 
Blue Sky. 

25
00:01:23,600 --> 00:01:28,700
A primary deity, their witness 
to every oath and promise in 

26
00:01:28,700 --> 00:01:31,100
summer, the sun hammers, down 
with an intensity. 

27
00:01:31,100 --> 00:01:34,300
That makes the air Shimmer above
the distant Hills turning, 

28
00:01:34,300 --> 00:01:37,400
everything Beyond a certain 
distance into wavering mirages 

29
00:01:37,400 --> 00:01:41,300
in Winter that same Sky, turns 
hard and pale and the cold 

30
00:01:41,300 --> 00:01:44,000
descends with a cruelty that can
kill a person in ours, if 

31
00:01:44,000 --> 00:01:46,800
they're caught unprepared, 
freezing, fingers, and toes, 

32
00:01:46,800 --> 00:01:50,500
before you even realize, you're 
in danger, you notice the herds 

33
00:01:50,500 --> 00:01:53,600
first horses. 
Mostly moving in, a loose groups

34
00:01:53,600 --> 00:01:57,000
across the grassland, their 
coach Shaggy and thick Built For

35
00:01:57,000 --> 00:02:00,600
This climate extremes. 
These aren't the Sleek refined 

36
00:02:00,600 --> 00:02:02,000
animals. 
You might pick picture from 

37
00:02:02,000 --> 00:02:04,800
latest centuries. 
These are sturdy creatures 

38
00:02:04,800 --> 00:02:09,100
Barrel chested and short-legged 
capable of surviving on what 

39
00:02:09,100 --> 00:02:12,200
ever tough grass. 
Pokes through the snow capable 

40
00:02:12,200 --> 00:02:15,700
of traveling 50 miles in a day 
without complaint near them 

41
00:02:15,700 --> 00:02:19,500
sheep cluster and Tighter 
groups, their wolf, thick and 

42
00:02:19,500 --> 00:02:22,500
oily, providing protection 
against whether that would kill 

43
00:02:22,500 --> 00:02:26,000
less a breeds. 
The occasional camel stands 

44
00:02:26,000 --> 00:02:29,400
apart chewing thoughtfully 
looking vaguely offended by 

45
00:02:29,400 --> 00:02:32,100
everything as camels. 
Do the camps. 

46
00:02:32,100 --> 00:02:34,800
Themselves are temporary 
constellation scattered across 

47
00:02:34,800 --> 00:02:38,200
this ocean of grass. 
You approach one now and the 

48
00:02:38,200 --> 00:02:41,400
smell of smoke becomes specific 
burning. 

49
00:02:41,400 --> 00:02:45,700
Argyle dried dung that serves as
the primary fuel source out here

50
00:02:45,700 --> 00:02:49,300
where trees are rare luxuries, 
it's not an unpleasant smell 

51
00:02:49,300 --> 00:02:53,700
earthy and practical mixed with 
the scent of boiling meat and 

52
00:02:53,700 --> 00:02:57,800
fermented Mayors milk. 
The jeers felt covered lattice 

53
00:02:57,800 --> 00:02:59,300
structures. 
That others would later call 

54
00:02:59,300 --> 00:03:03,700
Yurts sit in rough circles, 
their doors, all always facing 

55
00:03:03,700 --> 00:03:06,500
south to catch the Sun and avoid
the north wind. 

56
00:03:06,500 --> 00:03:10,000
That brings the worst weather 
inside a gir, the world 

57
00:03:10,000 --> 00:03:13,200
contracts, to something 
manageable, almost cozy. 

58
00:03:14,100 --> 00:03:18,300
Felt walls, several layers, 
thick trap warmth from a central

59
00:03:18,300 --> 00:03:21,000
half where a fire burns, low and
steady. 

60
00:03:21,000 --> 00:03:25,500
The lattice framework creates a 
satisfying geometric pattern and

61
00:03:25,500 --> 00:03:29,300
everything, has its place 
weapons and saddles on the west 

62
00:03:29,300 --> 00:03:32,700
and side cooking, implements 
near the door and the families, 

63
00:03:32,700 --> 00:03:36,000
treasured possessions arranged 
around the back wall opposite. 

64
00:03:36,000 --> 00:03:40,500
The entrance, the floor is 
covered with felt and Furs and 

65
00:03:40,500 --> 00:03:44,600
the air smells of smoke and 
whatever's cooking in the pots, 

66
00:03:44,600 --> 00:03:47,700
suspended over the fire. 
You're learning the rhythm of 

67
00:03:47,700 --> 00:03:52,100
Step life and it's tied entirely
to the animals and the seasons, 

68
00:03:52,100 --> 00:03:56,000
spring means following the herds
to Fresh grazing, watching for 

69
00:03:56,000 --> 00:03:59,700
the births of new folds, and 
lambs and moving Camp every few 

70
00:03:59,700 --> 00:04:01,400
weeks. 
As the animals, exhaust, the 

71
00:04:01,400 --> 00:04:05,000
grass in one area, the work is 
constant during these months. 

72
00:04:05,000 --> 00:04:08,900
Assisting difficult births. 
Protecting newborns from 

73
00:04:08,900 --> 00:04:12,400
predators and keeping track of 
which animals belong to which 

74
00:04:12,400 --> 00:04:14,700
families in the communal herding
Arrangements. 

75
00:04:14,700 --> 00:04:19,200
That characterize steps aside, a
good spring can set a family up 

76
00:04:19,200 --> 00:04:22,200
for Prosperity. 
A bad one where disease strike 

77
00:04:22,200 --> 00:04:25,300
the herds or whether kills the 
young can mean poverty or Worse.

78
00:04:25,300 --> 00:04:29,400
Some are brings the easiest 
living abundant grass warm days 

79
00:04:29,400 --> 00:04:32,100
and time for the Great 
Gatherings, where Clans would 

80
00:04:32,100 --> 00:04:37,000
meet arranged marriages, settle 
dispute, race, horses and 

81
00:04:37,000 --> 00:04:39,400
wrestle. 
You attend one of these summer 

82
00:04:39,400 --> 00:04:42,400
Gatherings, and it's part of 
Festival part, political 

83
00:04:42,400 --> 00:04:47,100
convention, and part Market. 
Young men compete in archery. 

84
00:04:47,100 --> 00:04:50,500
Contests their arrows. 
Flying toward distant targets 

85
00:04:50,500 --> 00:04:54,000
with accuracy. 
That seems impossible wrestlers 

86
00:04:54,000 --> 00:04:57,300
grapple in competitions. 
That draw, huge crowds the 

87
00:04:57,300 --> 00:04:59,800
winners, gaining Prestige, that 
will follow them for years. 

88
00:04:59,800 --> 00:05:03,700
Horse, races cover distances, 
that would exhaust animals bred 

89
00:05:03,700 --> 00:05:07,600
for Speed rather than endurance.
And the Victorious Riders become

90
00:05:07,600 --> 00:05:10,200
local. 
Celebrities their horses sought 

91
00:05:10,200 --> 00:05:13,800
after for breeding between the 
competitions, serious business 

92
00:05:13,800 --> 00:05:17,700
gets conducted elders meeting 
Council, discussing grazing 

93
00:05:17,700 --> 00:05:21,300
rights resolving feuds that have
simmered since the previous 

94
00:05:21,300 --> 00:05:24,600
Gathering and arranging 
marriages between families to 

95
00:05:24,600 --> 00:05:28,800
cement alliances, or heal Rifts.
Young people circling each other

96
00:05:28,800 --> 00:05:31,700
with the careful, choreography 
of potential courtship 

97
00:05:31,700 --> 00:05:34,300
chaperone. 
But given enough freedom to 

98
00:05:34,300 --> 00:05:37,400
assess, whether they might suit 
each other, Merchants set up 

99
00:05:37,400 --> 00:05:40,100
temporary stalls, offering 
Goods, that can't be made on the

100
00:05:40,100 --> 00:05:43,900
step metal tools, Chinese silk 
grain, and tea. 

101
00:05:43,900 --> 00:05:47,600
For those who can afford such 
luxuries, Autumn means preparing

102
00:05:47,600 --> 00:05:49,900
for winter and the work becomes 
frantic. 

103
00:05:49,900 --> 00:05:55,000
Meet must be preserved, dried 
smoke'd or sometimes buried in 

104
00:05:55,008 --> 00:05:56,700
the permafrost in Northern 
regions. 

105
00:05:56,700 --> 00:06:00,300
Where the grounds stays Frozen 
even in summer, felt gets made 

106
00:06:00,300 --> 00:06:03,100
from wool the fibers. 
Pounded and worked, until they 

107
00:06:03,100 --> 00:06:06,100
matched together into material. 
That will keep wind and cold at 

108
00:06:06,100 --> 00:06:09,500
Bay, every piece of equipment, 
gets inspected and repaired. 

109
00:06:10,300 --> 00:06:15,500
Saddles bridles tent frames and 
the 100 small items that might 

110
00:06:15,500 --> 00:06:18,400
seem unimportant until they 
break in the middle of winter 

111
00:06:18,400 --> 00:06:23,200
and can't be replaced women. 
Work on clothing, stitching new 

112
00:06:23,200 --> 00:06:26,400
garments and repairing old ones 
adding layers of insulation. 

113
00:06:26,400 --> 00:06:29,100
That will mean the difference 
between comfort and Frostbite. 

114
00:06:29,100 --> 00:06:32,900
Winter means hunkering down, in 
more sheltered, valleys, keeping

115
00:06:32,900 --> 00:06:36,300
the herds alive through the 
coldest months, and surviving on

116
00:06:36,300 --> 00:06:38,900
preserved foods and the milk 
from animals. 

117
00:06:38,900 --> 00:06:41,400
Hardy enough to still produce in
the cold. 

118
00:06:41,400 --> 00:06:45,300
The work doesn't stop Animals. 
Still need to be moved to 

119
00:06:45,300 --> 00:06:48,900
whatever grazing can be found 
sometimes requiring you to break

120
00:06:48,900 --> 00:06:52,800
through ice on ponds so they can
drink, always watching for signs

121
00:06:52,800 --> 00:06:55,700
of weakness or disease that 
might signal and animal vote 

122
00:06:55,700 --> 00:06:59,400
survive to spring inside the 
jurors crafts. 

123
00:06:59,400 --> 00:07:03,900
Get practiced making rope from 
horsehair carving wood working 

124
00:07:03,900 --> 00:07:06,000
leather and teaching children 
the skills. 

125
00:07:06,000 --> 00:07:08,800
They'll need, when they are old 
enough to contribute fully to 

126
00:07:08,800 --> 00:07:12,100
the household survival, The 
people you meet here, move with 

127
00:07:12,100 --> 00:07:14,400
an economy of motion born from 
necessity? 

128
00:07:14,400 --> 00:07:17,700
There's no wasted effort when 
every calorie burned must be 

129
00:07:17,700 --> 00:07:19,700
replaced by food. 
That's never guaranteed 

130
00:07:19,700 --> 00:07:21,800
children. 
As young as three or four 

131
00:07:21,800 --> 00:07:23,900
already sit confidently on 
Horseback. 

132
00:07:23,900 --> 00:07:26,300
Learning balance. 
Before they learn to form 

133
00:07:26,300 --> 00:07:30,100
complex sentences by six or 
seven, they're helping herd 

134
00:07:30,100 --> 00:07:32,000
animals. 
Their small fingers already 

135
00:07:32,000 --> 00:07:34,900
capable of the intricate work 
required to maintain equipment 

136
00:07:34,900 --> 00:07:39,400
repair Tack and perform the 
hundred small tasks that keep a 

137
00:07:39,400 --> 00:07:42,800
nomadic household functioning 
you notice, the sounds that Mark

138
00:07:42,800 --> 00:07:46,600
the hours here not bells or 
clocks, but the movement of 

139
00:07:46,600 --> 00:07:50,900
animals, the changing quality of
wind and the calls that pass 

140
00:07:50,900 --> 00:07:52,900
between herders watching their 
flocks. 

141
00:07:52,900 --> 00:07:56,800
Someone shouts a warning about a
Wandering sheep and the sound 

142
00:07:56,800 --> 00:08:00,400
carries impossibly far across 
the open Grassland, Chris and 

143
00:08:00,400 --> 00:08:04,000
clear. 
Somewhere a horse whinnies and 

144
00:08:04,000 --> 00:08:08,400
others answer a conversation in 
a language older than words. 

145
00:08:09,000 --> 00:08:14,700
At night, the sounds shift, owls
hunting, the occasional distant 

146
00:08:14,700 --> 00:08:19,000
Wolf, the settling noises of 
animals bedding down and the low

147
00:08:19,000 --> 00:08:22,500
conversation of adults sitting 
around fires their faces lit 

148
00:08:22,500 --> 00:08:24,700
From Below. 
Making them look carved from 

149
00:08:24,700 --> 00:08:28,000
copper and Shadow. 
The night sky here is violent 

150
00:08:28,000 --> 00:08:31,500
with stars more than you've ever
seen more than seems possible. 

151
00:08:31,500 --> 00:08:35,100
The Milky Way isn't a faint 
smudge, but a River of Light, 

152
00:08:35,100 --> 00:08:38,100
cutting the heavens in half. 
You can see why these people 

153
00:08:38,100 --> 00:08:40,900
develop such sophisticated 
understanding of celestial 

154
00:08:40,900 --> 00:08:44,200
navigation, why their charms 
could read meaning in the 

155
00:08:44,200 --> 00:08:47,000
patterns overhead, and why 
Travelers could Orient 

156
00:08:47,000 --> 00:08:50,400
themselves on moonless nights by
learning the constellations. 

157
00:08:50,400 --> 00:08:53,600
As intimately, as you know, your
own neighborhood, the Stars 

158
00:08:53,600 --> 00:08:56,900
wheel overhead in their Eternal 
dance and you begin to 

159
00:08:56,900 --> 00:08:59,300
understand why. 
The Mongols saw the skies are 

160
00:08:59,300 --> 00:09:03,100
living presents, a witness to 
Oaths and Promises something 

161
00:09:03,100 --> 00:09:06,900
worthy of reverence the shamans 
themselves are fascinating 

162
00:09:06,900 --> 00:09:10,900
figures operating at the Of 
medicine psychology and 

163
00:09:10,900 --> 00:09:14,800
spirituality you watch one 
working drumming himself into 

164
00:09:14,800 --> 00:09:17,600
trance States, this 
Consciousness, supposedly 

165
00:09:17,600 --> 00:09:20,400
traveling to the spirit world to
negotiate with entities who 

166
00:09:20,408 --> 00:09:24,300
control whether health and 
Fortune whether you believe in 

167
00:09:24,300 --> 00:09:27,400
the spiritual mechanics or not. 
There's no denying the 

168
00:09:27,400 --> 00:09:30,800
psychological impact of the way.
A good Shaman can calm and 

169
00:09:30,800 --> 00:09:34,600
anxious Community provide 
explanations for Misfortune that

170
00:09:34,600 --> 00:09:38,300
make it bearable and offer 
rituals that give people a sense

171
00:09:38,300 --> 00:09:40,900
of control over and otherwise 
unpredictable existence. 

172
00:09:40,900 --> 00:09:44,400
This is the world that shape, 
the boy who had become Genghis, 

173
00:09:44,400 --> 00:09:48,400
Khan a world where strength and 
skilled determinants of rival 

174
00:09:48,400 --> 00:09:52,700
where Alliance is shifted, like 
the grass in wind and where a 

175
00:09:52,700 --> 00:09:56,600
person's worth was measured in 
their ability to endure to adapt

176
00:09:56,600 --> 00:10:00,300
and to master the Arts of riding
archery and reading the subtle 

177
00:10:00,300 --> 00:10:02,600
signs that meant the difference 
between life and death. 

178
00:10:02,600 --> 00:10:05,800
It's a world that seems harsh 
from the outside, but you're 

179
00:10:05,800 --> 00:10:09,000
beginning to understand its own 
particular Beauty, the freedom 

180
00:10:09,200 --> 00:10:12,300
in its vastness and the clarity 
in his demands. 

181
00:10:12,300 --> 00:10:16,500
There are no abstractions here. 
No philosophical debates, about 

182
00:10:16,500 --> 00:10:19,800
the nature of reality. 
Reality is the grass under your 

183
00:10:19,800 --> 00:10:24,200
feet, the horse between your 
legs, the weather overhead and 

184
00:10:24,200 --> 00:10:26,500
the animals that mean survival 
or starvation. 

185
00:10:26,500 --> 00:10:30,700
You're watching a boy, perhaps 
nine years old standing beside a

186
00:10:30,708 --> 00:10:32,500
frozen River in the depths of 
winter. 

187
00:10:33,300 --> 00:10:37,200
His name is temujin and he's 
just watched his father die 

188
00:10:37,200 --> 00:10:40,900
poisoned by tartars during what 
should have been a simple Feast,

189
00:10:40,900 --> 00:10:45,100
the death itself was days ago, 
but you're seeing the aftermath.

190
00:10:45,100 --> 00:10:48,500
Now, the moment when his 
father's followers make a choice

191
00:10:48,500 --> 00:10:50,100
that will Define the rest of his
life. 

192
00:10:50,800 --> 00:10:54,100
They're leaving. 
The decision makes a certain 

193
00:10:54,108 --> 00:10:59,300
brutal Sensei ten regions. 
Father yesugei was a minor 

194
00:10:59,300 --> 00:11:02,500
Chieftain respected but not 
wealthy and without his 

195
00:11:02,500 --> 00:11:05,300
leadership there's no reason for
these families to stay attached 

196
00:11:05,300 --> 00:11:09,100
to his widow and children. 
Resources on the step of finite 

197
00:11:09,100 --> 00:11:12,700
and carefully calculated. 
Every mouth to feed is a genuine

198
00:11:12,700 --> 00:11:16,300
burden, and a widow with several
young children, and no powerful 

199
00:11:16,300 --> 00:11:19,900
male protector represents 
liability that most can't 

200
00:11:19,900 --> 00:11:22,300
afford. 
So they pack their possessions 

201
00:11:22,300 --> 00:11:24,300
onto their horses and carts and 
they leave. 

202
00:11:25,100 --> 00:11:26,800
And you watched to move in 
watching them go. 

203
00:11:27,500 --> 00:11:31,100
His face revealing nothing that 
we surely calculating. 

204
00:11:31,100 --> 00:11:34,200
What this means. 
What it means is hunger. 

205
00:11:34,200 --> 00:11:37,300
You follow the family through 
that first winter and it's a 

206
00:11:37,300 --> 00:11:41,200
grinding Relentless thing. 
His mother holen keeps them 

207
00:11:41,200 --> 00:11:42,600
alive. 
Through sheer, determination 

208
00:11:42,600 --> 00:11:46,900
digging for Wild Roots catching 
fish in the summer months 

209
00:11:46,900 --> 00:11:50,500
hunting, small game. 
And teaching her children, the 

210
00:11:50,500 --> 00:11:52,900
difference between edible and 
poisonous plants. 

211
00:11:52,900 --> 00:11:56,800
They live in something, barely 
qualify as a juror more of a 

212
00:11:56,800 --> 00:11:59,600
lean to constructed from 
whatever materials they could 

213
00:11:59,600 --> 00:12:01,700
Salvage. 
And you can see the physical 

214
00:12:01,700 --> 00:12:04,900
toll on all of them. 
The way their faces grow gaunt. 

215
00:12:04,900 --> 00:12:08,300
The way their movements become 
careful and economical, 

216
00:12:08,300 --> 00:12:12,200
conserving energy. 
Hulen herself is remarkable a 

217
00:12:12,200 --> 00:12:14,200
woman who refuses to break under
circumstances. 

218
00:12:14,200 --> 00:12:17,500
That would destroy most people, 
you watch her maintaining 

219
00:12:17,500 --> 00:12:21,300
discipline among her children, 
keeping them focused on Survival

220
00:12:21,300 --> 00:12:24,100
rather than despair teaching 
them skills. 

221
00:12:24,100 --> 00:12:27,200
While also instilling in the 
belief that this poverty is 

222
00:12:27,600 --> 00:12:29,600
Temporary. 
That they come from Noble 

223
00:12:29,600 --> 00:12:31,800
lineage and will reclaim their 
position. 

224
00:12:31,800 --> 00:12:36,300
Its part to delusion part 
determination an entirely 

225
00:12:36,300 --> 00:12:38,300
necessary. 
Without that belief. 

226
00:12:38,300 --> 00:12:41,600
They might simply give up, might
fail to put in the exhausting 

227
00:12:41,600 --> 00:12:43,600
work. 
Required to survive another day 

228
00:12:43,600 --> 00:12:46,600
temperatures, and learns to fish
with an intense tea. 

229
00:12:46,600 --> 00:12:49,400
That suggests his life, depends 
on it, which it does. 

230
00:12:50,200 --> 00:12:53,700
You watch him standing knee deep
in an icy stream completely 

231
00:12:53,700 --> 00:12:56,100
still waiting for the flicker of
movement. 

232
00:12:56,100 --> 00:13:00,100
That signals a fish swimming 
near when he strikes with the 

233
00:13:00,100 --> 00:13:04,600
speed of a hunting bird his 
hands darting into the water and

234
00:13:04,600 --> 00:13:08,600
more often than not he comes up 
empty his fingers numb and 

235
00:13:08,600 --> 00:13:12,400
useless from the cold but 
sometimes he succeeds and 

236
00:13:12,400 --> 00:13:16,100
there's no celebration just the 
quiet satisfaction of another 

237
00:13:16,100 --> 00:13:20,600
meal secured another day of 
survival guaranteed, the family 

238
00:13:20,600 --> 00:13:25,100
hunts, small game, marmots, 
rabbits and occasionally Birds 

239
00:13:25,100 --> 00:13:28,100
tamugan makes his own arrows. 
Carving them from Woods 

240
00:13:28,100 --> 00:13:29,900
scavenged wherever he can find 
it. 

241
00:13:30,600 --> 00:13:32,500
Making points from bone or 
stone. 

242
00:13:32,500 --> 00:13:35,400
When metal is unavailable? 
His bow is simple. 

243
00:13:35,400 --> 00:13:38,800
Nothing like the sophisticated 
composite weapons that wealthy 

244
00:13:38,800 --> 00:13:42,000
Warriors carry, but it works 
well enough to bring down a 

245
00:13:42,000 --> 00:13:46,000
rabbit at 20 paces and that's 
all that matters becomes 

246
00:13:46,000 --> 00:13:49,000
intimately familiar with the 
habits of every edible animal in

247
00:13:49,000 --> 00:13:52,300
the region, learning their 
tracks, their feeding patterns, 

248
00:13:52,300 --> 00:13:56,100
and the times of day, when 
they're most vulnerable, There 

249
00:13:56,100 --> 00:13:59,100
are moments of genuine, danger, 
Beyond starvation other 

250
00:13:59,100 --> 00:14:01,808
families, some barely better off
than to mutants see them as 

251
00:14:01,816 --> 00:14:06,200
potential targets week 
unprotected, possessing what 

252
00:14:06,200 --> 00:14:08,900
little they have you witness, an
attempted raid. 

253
00:14:08,900 --> 00:14:12,000
One night men, approaching the 
family's miserable Camp 

254
00:14:12,000 --> 00:14:13,700
thinking. 
It will be easy prey. 

255
00:14:14,500 --> 00:14:17,400
They're wrong temujin and his 
brothers fight with the 

256
00:14:17,400 --> 00:14:20,500
desperation of people who have 
nothing left to lose the 

257
00:14:20,500 --> 00:14:23,900
would-be, Raiders Retreat, 
leaving behind one of their own 

258
00:14:23,900 --> 00:14:26,600
wounded. 
It's a small victory but it 

259
00:14:26,600 --> 00:14:29,400
teaches temujin. 
Something important that 

260
00:14:29,400 --> 00:14:31,300
perceived weakness can be 
strategic. 

261
00:14:31,300 --> 00:14:34,100
That enemies. 
Who underestimate you hand you 

262
00:14:34,100 --> 00:14:37,200
an advantage. 
The family's horses, get stolen 

263
00:14:37,200 --> 00:14:40,500
one night and you follow to 
mujin as he tracks the thieves 

264
00:14:40,500 --> 00:14:43,300
across the grassland. 
He's maybe 14 now. 

265
00:14:43,300 --> 00:14:46,700
Ganglion still growing into his 
frame but there's already 

266
00:14:46,700 --> 00:14:49,300
something in his eyes that 
suggests he's done being pushed 

267
00:14:49,300 --> 00:14:53,600
around, he tracks for three 
days, sleeping rough, eating 

268
00:14:53,600 --> 00:14:57,000
nothing and focused with the 
single-mindedness of someone who

269
00:14:57,008 --> 00:14:59,800
understands that. 
Those horses represent, the 

270
00:14:59,800 --> 00:15:03,900
difference between survival and 
slow starvation, when he finds 

271
00:15:03,900 --> 00:15:05,700
them, he doesn't attack 
directly. 

272
00:15:06,500 --> 00:15:10,200
He watches Waits learns, the 
patterns of the camp that is 

273
00:15:10,200 --> 00:15:12,300
taken them. 
And then he simply walks in 

274
00:15:12,300 --> 00:15:15,500
during the day, when most of the
men are out hunting and leads 

275
00:15:15,500 --> 00:15:18,900
his horses away, he'll dasetty 
of it makes you want to laugh, 

276
00:15:18,900 --> 00:15:21,600
but he's not joking. 
He's already learned that 

277
00:15:21,600 --> 00:15:25,000
sometimes the direct approach 
Works precisely because no one 

278
00:15:25,000 --> 00:15:28,500
expects it on his way back. 
He encounters a young man named 

279
00:15:28,500 --> 00:15:31,200
Bogota. 
Who sees what to move in as done

280
00:15:31,200 --> 00:15:33,900
and is impressed enough to help 
him get the horses home safely. 

281
00:15:34,700 --> 00:15:38,800
Temujin, first, real Ally, since
his father's death, and the two 

282
00:15:38,800 --> 00:15:42,500
former bond that will last 
decades bogerty comes from a 

283
00:15:42,500 --> 00:15:45,600
relatively prosperous family. 
But he sees something in this 

284
00:15:45,600 --> 00:15:48,900
desperate determined teenager. 
That makes him think following 

285
00:15:48,900 --> 00:15:50,800
temujin might lead somewhere 
interesting. 

286
00:15:50,800 --> 00:15:54,400
You see him making his next 
significant Alliance during this

287
00:15:54,400 --> 00:15:57,700
period with Jamaica. 
Another young man who would 

288
00:15:57,700 --> 00:16:01,600
eventually become his greatest 
rival for now though their 

289
00:16:01,600 --> 00:16:05,200
friends found by the traditional
Mongolian practice of Anda, 

290
00:16:05,200 --> 00:16:09,400
sworn Brotherhood, the exchange 
gifts, the ritual simple but 

291
00:16:09,400 --> 00:16:13,100
binding and you watch them 
hunting together racing horses 

292
00:16:13,100 --> 00:16:16,100
and learning the skills that 
will later make them both for 

293
00:16:16,100 --> 00:16:19,300
Middle Warrior's. 
This genuine affection here, you

294
00:16:19,300 --> 00:16:22,100
think. 
But also calculation, even at 

295
00:16:22,100 --> 00:16:25,900
this age temujin understands the
value of allies, the way of 

296
00:16:25,908 --> 00:16:28,300
survival on the step often 
depends on having people, you 

297
00:16:28,300 --> 00:16:31,700
can trust to watch your back. 
his relationship with his 

298
00:16:31,700 --> 00:16:34,600
half-brother begged, her 
deteriorates during these years,

299
00:16:34,600 --> 00:16:38,200
resources are so scarce that 
even within the family 

300
00:16:38,200 --> 00:16:42,500
competition becomes vicious, The
breaking point comes when Becker

301
00:16:42,500 --> 00:16:45,000
takes fish and game that to 
mu-jin and his full brother 

302
00:16:45,000 --> 00:16:48,000
Cassara of Court. 
Asserting the Privileges of 

303
00:16:48,000 --> 00:16:51,300
being the eldest for most 
families, this would be a minor 

304
00:16:51,300 --> 00:16:54,000
dispute something resolved 
through perennial intervention. 

305
00:16:55,000 --> 00:16:58,500
But here with survival hanging 
by a thread, it becomes 

306
00:16:58,500 --> 00:17:02,800
something more serious temujin 
and cassar kill, becta shooting 

307
00:17:02,800 --> 00:17:05,900
him, with arrows and their 
Mother's Rage when she discovers

308
00:17:05,900 --> 00:17:07,700
what they've done is terrible to
witness. 

309
00:17:08,599 --> 00:17:11,900
She calls them destroyers and 
predators and Compares them to 

310
00:17:11,900 --> 00:17:15,500
monsters from Legend, the guilt 
and shame of this moment will 

311
00:17:15,500 --> 00:17:18,700
follow temujin for the rest of 
his life, but he doesn't back 

312
00:17:18,700 --> 00:17:22,900
down, doesn't apologize. 
He made a calculation of some 

313
00:17:22,900 --> 00:17:25,599
survival and loyalty and he'd 
acted on it. 

314
00:17:25,599 --> 00:17:28,700
The Tate you'd Clan captures 
TAMU Ginger. 

315
00:17:28,700 --> 00:17:32,000
During his teenage years, seeing
him as a Potential Threat or 

316
00:17:32,000 --> 00:17:35,200
perhaps just exercising 
dominance over a weekend family.

317
00:17:35,200 --> 00:17:39,100
A place him in a Kang, a wooden 
restraint Warner around the neck

318
00:17:39,100 --> 00:17:42,100
that prevents lying down or 
reaching one's own head and 

319
00:17:42,100 --> 00:17:43,900
prayed him around as a warning 
to others. 

320
00:17:43,900 --> 00:17:47,800
You watch him endure this 
humiliation his face in passive 

321
00:17:47,800 --> 00:17:50,800
but his eyes constantly 
calculating watching for 

322
00:17:50,800 --> 00:17:55,300
opportunity when it comes during
a celebration when his guards a 

323
00:17:55,300 --> 00:17:58,300
drunk, he escapes using the Kang
itself. 

324
00:17:58,300 --> 00:18:02,200
As a weapon to knock one guard 
unconscious and hiding in a 

325
00:18:02,200 --> 00:18:06,300
river submerged, except for his 
face breathing through reads, 

326
00:18:06,300 --> 00:18:09,000
while search parties pass. 
Overhead. 

327
00:18:09,000 --> 00:18:12,300
A man named sorgen Shira finds 
him during this Escape 

328
00:18:12,300 --> 00:18:16,200
recognizes him and makes the 
Split Second decision to help 

329
00:18:16,200 --> 00:18:20,200
rather than turn him in. 
He hides to mujin in a cart full

330
00:18:20,208 --> 00:18:23,600
of wool and risks his own 
family, safety to protect this 

331
00:18:23,600 --> 00:18:27,100
fugitive teenager later. 
Temujin will remember this. 

332
00:18:27,100 --> 00:18:31,300
Kindness will Elevate sorghum 
Shearer's family and will build 

333
00:18:31,300 --> 00:18:34,100
a reputation for rewarding 
loyalty that becomes one of his 

334
00:18:34,100 --> 00:18:37,600
most powerful recruiting tools. 
But in the moment he's just a 

335
00:18:37,608 --> 00:18:41,500
boy hiding in Wool, heart 
pounding understanding that his 

336
00:18:41,500 --> 00:18:43,500
life depends on the choice of 
strangers. 

337
00:18:43,500 --> 00:18:48,000
His marriage to burst is a range
when he still young a match 

338
00:18:48,000 --> 00:18:51,200
organized by his father before 
his death, your present. 

339
00:18:51,200 --> 00:18:54,500
When he finally brings her home 
to his Mega Camp, traveling, to 

340
00:18:54,500 --> 00:18:56,700
her family's encampment to clean
his bride. 

341
00:18:56,700 --> 00:19:00,800
She strong willed and practical 
exactly the kind of partner 

342
00:19:00,800 --> 00:19:03,700
needed for this life. 
You can see them establishing 

343
00:19:03,700 --> 00:19:04,900
the patterns of their 
partnership. 

344
00:19:05,900 --> 00:19:08,600
She manages the household with 
an efficiency that keeps them 

345
00:19:08,600 --> 00:19:12,200
fed and warm, and he ranges 
farther afield. 

346
00:19:12,200 --> 00:19:15,800
Building connections Gathering 
followers and slowly 

347
00:19:15,800 --> 00:19:19,100
accumulating, the resources and 
reputation needed to become 

348
00:19:19,100 --> 00:19:20,900
something more than a struggling
orphan. 

349
00:19:20,900 --> 00:19:26,300
Then the markets come Raid the 
camp Dawn and its chaos. 

350
00:19:27,000 --> 00:19:30,500
Shouting the Thunder of hooves 
and to Mugen making the Split 

351
00:19:30,500 --> 00:19:33,700
Second decision to flee with his
mother and siblings rather than 

352
00:19:33,700 --> 00:19:37,600
die in a pointless fight. 
They take Berta and you're 

353
00:19:37,600 --> 00:19:40,400
watching right away and there's 
shame in it, certainly but also 

354
00:19:40,400 --> 00:19:43,700
the cold pragmatism of someone 
who understands that dead men 

355
00:19:43,700 --> 00:19:44,700
rescue. 
No one. 

356
00:19:45,400 --> 00:19:47,300
What happens? 
Next tells you everything about 

357
00:19:47,300 --> 00:19:49,800
who he's becoming. 
He doesn't mourn. 

358
00:19:49,800 --> 00:19:52,600
He doesn't waste time on regret 
instead. 

359
00:19:52,600 --> 00:19:57,000
He activates every Alliance. 
He's built calls in every favor.

360
00:19:57,000 --> 00:20:00,900
Goes to toggle Khan. 
His father's old Ally and 

361
00:20:00,900 --> 00:20:04,700
essentially says help me. 
Get my wife back and you'll have

362
00:20:04,700 --> 00:20:08,300
my loyalty. 
Toggler agrees like seeing 

363
00:20:08,300 --> 00:20:11,800
opportunity in this intense 
young man who clearly knows how 

364
00:20:11,800 --> 00:20:15,300
to inspire followers despite 
having nothing material to offer

365
00:20:15,300 --> 00:20:17,500
them together with yawmuka 
Warriors. 

366
00:20:17,500 --> 00:20:20,400
They assemble a force large 
enough to strike back at the 

367
00:20:20,400 --> 00:20:25,200
markets 20,000, men are 
significant Army by step 

368
00:20:25,200 --> 00:20:29,200
standards The Raid succeeds. 
You watch them hit the market 

369
00:20:29,200 --> 00:20:32,900
camp at dawn returning, the 
favor and tamugan finds Berta 

370
00:20:32,900 --> 00:20:36,600
among the scattered jurors. 
She calls out his name and the 

371
00:20:36,600 --> 00:20:39,700
reunion is brief and functional.
There's no time for emotional 

372
00:20:39,700 --> 00:20:43,200
when you're in enemy territory 
only later when their safely 

373
00:20:43,200 --> 00:20:45,100
away, does he allow himself to 
feel anything? 

374
00:20:45,100 --> 00:20:50,900
And what he feels, you suspect 
isn't just relief, but a kind of

375
00:20:50,900 --> 00:20:53,700
vindication he's proven, he can 
Strike Back. 

376
00:20:53,700 --> 00:20:56,900
Can organize a military 
operation and can lead men into 

377
00:20:56,900 --> 00:20:58,600
battle and bring them out 
Victorious. 

378
00:20:59,600 --> 00:21:02,000
Berta gives birth month later to
a son. 

379
00:21:02,008 --> 00:21:04,500
They named Yoshi. 
There will always be quiet 

380
00:21:04,500 --> 00:21:06,500
questions about the child's 
paternity. 

381
00:21:06,500 --> 00:21:11,300
The math of conception makes the
timeline ambiguous But to mujin 

382
00:21:11,300 --> 00:21:14,600
claims him as his own without 
hesitation publicly and 

383
00:21:14,600 --> 00:21:18,300
repeatedly, you understand that 
this too is part of his emerging

384
00:21:18,300 --> 00:21:21,100
character. 
The ability to choose loyalty 

385
00:21:21,100 --> 00:21:24,000
over doubt. 
To decide what matters and then 

386
00:21:24,000 --> 00:21:27,300
commit to it completely and to 
refuse to let shame or 

387
00:21:27,300 --> 00:21:29,300
uncertainty undermine. 
What he's building. 

388
00:21:29,300 --> 00:21:33,100
You're riding now part of a 
Mongol Warriors daily routine. 

389
00:21:33,100 --> 00:21:35,900
And the first thing you notice 
is that you never really stop 

390
00:21:35,900 --> 00:21:38,000
moving. 
The horse beneath, you has a 

391
00:21:38,008 --> 00:21:41,200
rolling gate that covers ground 
efficiently and you're learning 

392
00:21:41,208 --> 00:21:44,200
to relax into it. 
To let your body move with the 

393
00:21:44,200 --> 00:21:47,500
animal rather than against it. 
Your legs ache from the 

394
00:21:47,500 --> 00:21:50,800
unfamiliar position and your 
inner thighs are rubbed raw 

395
00:21:50,800 --> 00:21:52,300
despite the protection of your 
deal. 

396
00:21:52,300 --> 00:21:56,300
The traditional long robe that 
everyone wears the Mongols 

397
00:21:56,300 --> 00:21:58,000
around. 
You sit there horses like their 

398
00:21:58,000 --> 00:22:00,500
extensions of their own bodies 
comfortable. 

399
00:22:00,500 --> 00:22:03,500
Whether walking trotting or 
Galloping across the grassland 

400
00:22:03,500 --> 00:22:07,300
breakfast, when it comes is 
eaten in the saddle dried meat 

401
00:22:07,300 --> 00:22:10,900
hard cheese made from compressed
curds, perhaps some of the 

402
00:22:10,900 --> 00:22:12,300
yogurt drinks, they carry and 
leather. 

403
00:22:12,300 --> 00:22:15,000
Flasks, there's no stopping for 
meals. 

404
00:22:15,000 --> 00:22:17,900
When you're traveling know, 
setting up elaborate camps for 

405
00:22:17,900 --> 00:22:21,200
lunch, you eat, what you can 
carry and you keep moving 

406
00:22:21,200 --> 00:22:25,700
because distance Equal safety 
equals new grazing for the 

407
00:22:25,700 --> 00:22:29,100
animals, equals, whatever 
objective has Set You In Motion.

408
00:22:29,100 --> 00:22:32,700
The meat is tough enough to 
require extended chewing, which 

409
00:22:32,700 --> 00:22:35,400
is probably good because it 
makes limited rations last 

410
00:22:35,400 --> 00:22:38,200
longer and keeps your mouth 
occupied during the long hours 

411
00:22:38,200 --> 00:22:40,800
of riding. 
The bow strap to your side is 

412
00:22:40,800 --> 00:22:43,800
smaller than you expected a 
recurved design. 

413
00:22:43,800 --> 00:22:47,800
That's asymmetric to accommodate
shooting from horseback the 

414
00:22:47,800 --> 00:22:53,000
craftsmanship is extraordinary. 
Layers of wood horn and sinew 

415
00:22:53,000 --> 00:22:56,900
glue together with precise 
attention to grain Direction, 

416
00:22:56,900 --> 00:23:00,700
and tensile properties. 
In Birchbox, to protect against 

417
00:23:00,700 --> 00:23:03,400
moisture. 
Requiring months to construct 

418
00:23:03,400 --> 00:23:06,700
properly, during a break, not 
for the ride is, but to let the 

419
00:23:06,700 --> 00:23:09,800
horses graze and drink from a 
stream, you watch Warrior as 

420
00:23:09,800 --> 00:23:12,700
practicing. 
And the skill level is absurd, 

421
00:23:12,700 --> 00:23:17,900
they shoot forward backward and 
sideways hanging off the side of

422
00:23:17,900 --> 00:23:20,000
their horses. 
Hitting targets while moving at 

423
00:23:20,000 --> 00:23:23,900
full Gallop the secret. 
Someone explains is breathing 

424
00:23:23,900 --> 00:23:27,100
with the horses gate. 
Releasing the arrow during that 

425
00:23:27,100 --> 00:23:30,000
fraction of a second when all 
four hooves are off the ground, 

426
00:23:30,000 --> 00:23:33,800
and the horses essentially, 
floating providing a 

427
00:23:33,800 --> 00:23:36,600
momentarily. 
Stable platform, you learn about

428
00:23:36,600 --> 00:23:40,500
the Remuda system each Warrior 
traveling with multiple horses, 

429
00:23:40,500 --> 00:23:44,600
sometimes, three or four 
switching mounts every few hours

430
00:23:44,600 --> 00:23:47,800
to keep them fresh. 
It's why Mongol armies could 

431
00:23:47,800 --> 00:23:50,700
cover distances that seemed 
impossible to their enemies. 

432
00:23:50,700 --> 00:23:55,300
Why they could appear suddenly, 
when no one expected them strike

433
00:23:55,300 --> 00:23:59,600
and vanish before reinforcements
arrived, the horses themselves 

434
00:23:59,600 --> 00:24:02,100
are Hardy enough to survive on 
what ever forage. 

435
00:24:02,100 --> 00:24:05,400
They can find. 
Requiring no grain, no special 

436
00:24:05,400 --> 00:24:08,900
feeding and capable of pouring 
through snow to reach grass. 

437
00:24:08,900 --> 00:24:12,700
When necessary, they're not fast
compared to breeds developed for

438
00:24:12,700 --> 00:24:16,800
racing, but their tireless. 
Capable of maintaining a steady 

439
00:24:16,800 --> 00:24:19,200
Pace hour after hour day after 
day. 

440
00:24:19,200 --> 00:24:21,900
The Warriors carry minimal, 
personal gear. 

441
00:24:22,700 --> 00:24:25,800
The few changes of clothing, 
their weapons tools for 

442
00:24:25,800 --> 00:24:29,000
maintaining equipment and 
perhaps some personal items like

443
00:24:29,000 --> 00:24:31,700
a lucky charm or a small 
container of kumis. 

444
00:24:31,700 --> 00:24:35,100
Everything must be light enough 
to be transported on Horseback 

445
00:24:35,100 --> 00:24:38,700
and durable enough to survive 
the rigors of constant movement 

446
00:24:38,700 --> 00:24:41,800
and extreme weather. 
You notice how well maintained 

447
00:24:41,800 --> 00:24:46,400
everything is leather, kept oil,
metal, kept free of rust and 

448
00:24:46,400 --> 00:24:49,100
wood inspected regularly for 
cracks or weakness. 

449
00:24:49,100 --> 00:24:52,800
A broken stir up or frayed bow 
string at the wrong moment, can 

450
00:24:52,800 --> 00:24:55,300
mean death. 
So maintenance isn't optional. 

451
00:24:55,300 --> 00:24:58,800
It's a daily ritual performed 
with religious attention to 

452
00:24:58,800 --> 00:25:01,700
detail camp. 
That night is established with 

453
00:25:01,700 --> 00:25:05,100
practice often, see the jurors 
go up in less than an hour. 

454
00:25:05,108 --> 00:25:07,700
The latter is unfolding like 
wooden flowers. 

455
00:25:07,700 --> 00:25:11,300
The felt covers lashed down 
Against the Wind with ropes, 

456
00:25:11,300 --> 00:25:15,600
waited with stones inside the 
fire started with flint, and 

457
00:25:15,600 --> 00:25:19,700
steel Coke to life, with dried 
grass and small Twigs before the

458
00:25:19,700 --> 00:25:22,500
argyle is added the smoke finds 
its way out. 

459
00:25:22,600 --> 00:25:25,400
Through the opening at the top 
though enough lingers to make 

460
00:25:25,400 --> 00:25:28,200
your eyes water until you learn 
to position yourself correctly, 

461
00:25:28,200 --> 00:25:30,900
staying low, where the air is 
clearer. 

462
00:25:30,900 --> 00:25:34,300
Dinner is communal. 
The popped around everyone 

463
00:25:34,300 --> 00:25:37,600
eating from personal, bowls 
carved from wood or occasionally

464
00:25:37,600 --> 00:25:40,500
fashioned from leather sewn. 
So tightly it holds liquid. 

465
00:25:40,500 --> 00:25:44,400
The meat is mutton tonight 
boiled with wild onions. 

466
00:25:44,400 --> 00:25:46,800
And whatever greens someone 
managed to gather during the 

467
00:25:46,800 --> 00:25:49,900
day's travel. 
Perhaps some wild garlic or 

468
00:25:49,900 --> 00:25:53,600
Sorrel plants that had flavor 
and provide nutrients often 

469
00:25:53,600 --> 00:25:56,700
lacking in a meat heavy diet, 
simple food. 

470
00:25:56,700 --> 00:26:00,300
But after a day of riding, it 
tastes perfect warming. 

471
00:26:00,300 --> 00:26:03,500
You from the inside restoring 
energy to pleated Buy hours in 

472
00:26:03,500 --> 00:26:06,500
the saddle. 
The fermented mayor's milk era, 

473
00:26:06,500 --> 00:26:10,300
gets passed around in a leather 
bag and everyone takes a drink 

474
00:26:10,300 --> 00:26:14,100
before passing it on. 
It's mildly alcoholic and tangy.

475
00:26:14,100 --> 00:26:18,300
And acquired taste that grows on
you providing calories and a 

476
00:26:18,300 --> 00:26:20,400
slight Buzz, that takes the edge
off exhaustion. 

477
00:26:20,400 --> 00:26:24,300
The bank goes around multiple 
Times and the conversation flows

478
00:26:24,300 --> 00:26:28,100
with it stories and jokes gossip
about other clans and 

479
00:26:28,100 --> 00:26:30,200
speculation about whether and 
grazing. 

480
00:26:30,200 --> 00:26:33,000
Conditions ahead. 
Someone tells a story about a 

481
00:26:33,000 --> 00:26:35,900
particularly stupid sheep that 
wandered into a wolf dead and 

482
00:26:35,900 --> 00:26:39,100
somehow wandered, back out 
unharmed and the laughter that 

483
00:26:39,100 --> 00:26:42,200
follows is genuine. 
The kind that comes from people 

484
00:26:42,200 --> 00:26:45,200
who spend their days together 
and have developed their own 

485
00:26:45,200 --> 00:26:47,900
rhythms of humor. 
You notice how disputes get 

486
00:26:47,900 --> 00:26:50,400
settled? 
Not immediately with violence, 

487
00:26:50,400 --> 00:26:52,000
though. 
Violence is always an option 

488
00:26:52,000 --> 00:26:55,800
held in reserve, but through 
discussion, consensus, and 

489
00:26:55,800 --> 00:26:58,700
appealing to respected Elders. 
Whose word carries weight. 

490
00:26:58,700 --> 00:27:02,000
Someone accuses, another of 
taking more than his fair share 

491
00:27:02,000 --> 00:27:05,300
of the meat. 
There's a brief argument voices,

492
00:27:05,300 --> 00:27:09,000
raised hands, moving toward 
weapons, then an older Warrior 

493
00:27:09,000 --> 00:27:12,500
intervenes suggests, they 
measure the portions and points 

494
00:27:12,500 --> 00:27:15,700
out that the accused as actually
been eating less than his share 

495
00:27:15,700 --> 00:27:19,300
for days. 
The tension deflate the accuser 

496
00:27:19,300 --> 00:27:23,000
apologizes and the matter is 
settled, it's not always this 

497
00:27:23,000 --> 00:27:24,900
piece. 
For you've heard stories of 

498
00:27:24,900 --> 00:27:29,100
feuds, that last generations of 
murders committed over insults, 

499
00:27:29,100 --> 00:27:32,600
but there's a genuine attempt to
maintain cohesion, within the 

500
00:27:32,600 --> 00:27:35,700
group, because divided groups, 
don't survive long on the step. 

501
00:27:35,700 --> 00:27:39,300
You learn the higher hockey 
through observation, age 

502
00:27:39,300 --> 00:27:43,300
commands respect, but so does 
skill the best archers, the 

503
00:27:43,300 --> 00:27:46,400
finest horseman, The Warriors 
who've proven themselves in 

504
00:27:46,400 --> 00:27:50,900
raids, these people have status 
regardless of birth, its 

505
00:27:50,900 --> 00:27:54,200
meritocratic in a way that might
surprise you though, family 

506
00:27:54,200 --> 00:27:56,900
connections, certainly still 
matter particularly when it 

507
00:27:56,908 --> 00:27:59,900
comes to access to resources and
opportunities to prove oneself, 

508
00:27:59,900 --> 00:28:04,600
a talented young Warrior from a 
poor family can rise, but a 

509
00:28:04,600 --> 00:28:06,400
mediocre Warrior from a powerful
Clan. 

510
00:28:06,400 --> 00:28:10,800
Will still have advantages. 
The night watch gets organized 

511
00:28:10,800 --> 00:28:14,000
with Warriors, taking turns 
staying alert While others 

512
00:28:14,000 --> 00:28:17,000
sleep, you're learning that 
raids are common enough that no 

513
00:28:17,000 --> 00:28:20,600
Camp is ever truly unguarded 
that the price of carelessness 

514
00:28:20,600 --> 00:28:24,000
can be waking up to find your 
horses gone, your possession 

515
00:28:24,000 --> 00:28:26,500
stolen and your people scattered
or dead. 

516
00:28:26,500 --> 00:28:30,600
The step breeds a certain kind 
of vigilance a low-grade 

517
00:28:30,600 --> 00:28:33,800
awareness that never quite turns
off even in sleep. 

518
00:28:33,800 --> 00:28:37,100
Your subconsciously monitoring 
sounds ready to wake it. 

519
00:28:37,108 --> 00:28:40,700
Anything unusual, a horse's 
alarmed, Winnie, the sound of 

520
00:28:40,700 --> 00:28:43,500
many hooves approaching all the 
whistle that serves. 

521
00:28:43,500 --> 00:28:47,600
As a warning signal before 
sleep, there are small rituals 

522
00:28:47,600 --> 00:28:51,500
prayers to the Eternal Blue Sky 
offering of mayor's milk, 

523
00:28:51,500 --> 00:28:55,100
sprinkled on the ground and 
acknowledgment of the spirits 

524
00:28:55,100 --> 00:28:57,900
that inhabit this landscape. 
Shamans. 

525
00:28:57,900 --> 00:29:01,300
Hold their own ceremonies 
working themselves into trances 

526
00:29:01,300 --> 00:29:04,600
with drums and chanting 
communing with the spirits for 

527
00:29:04,600 --> 00:29:07,800
guidance or healing. 
You watch one treating a sick, 

528
00:29:07,800 --> 00:29:11,900
child performing what looks like
mystical theater but might also 

529
00:29:11,900 --> 00:29:15,000
involve genuine medicinal 
knowledge of herbs and remedies 

530
00:29:15,000 --> 00:29:17,500
the line between Magic and 
Medicine. 

531
00:29:17,500 --> 00:29:21,800
Thoroughly blurred, the shaman 
chance dances and makes dramatic

532
00:29:21,800 --> 00:29:24,500
gestures. 
While also preparing a tea, from

533
00:29:24,508 --> 00:29:27,200
Plants, he's gathered. 
And whether the healing comes 

534
00:29:27,200 --> 00:29:31,000
from spiritual intervention, or 
herbal medicine, or the placebo 

535
00:29:31,000 --> 00:29:32,900
effect of belief doesn't really 
matter. 

536
00:29:32,900 --> 00:29:37,400
If the child recovers sleep 
comes, quickly out here with the

537
00:29:37,408 --> 00:29:40,300
combination of physical 
exhaustion, and the particular 

538
00:29:40,300 --> 00:29:43,400
quality of darkness when you're 
far from any artificial light, 

539
00:29:43,400 --> 00:29:46,800
you dream of Horizons of 
movement of the rhythm of 

540
00:29:46,800 --> 00:29:49,500
hoofbeats that's been pounding 
through your awareness all day. 

541
00:29:49,500 --> 00:29:53,000
The dreams blend with half 
waking moments when you shift 

542
00:29:53,000 --> 00:29:56,600
position, adjust your Furs 
against the cold and hear the 

543
00:29:56,600 --> 00:30:00,200
sounds of Animals moving 
outside, guards, changing 

544
00:30:00,200 --> 00:30:04,000
shifts, and the Knight 
continuing its slow wheel toward

545
00:30:04,000 --> 00:30:07,400
Dawn when you wake Before 
Sunrise roused by the quiet 

546
00:30:07,400 --> 00:30:10,500
activity of people preparing for
another day of travel, you 

547
00:30:10,500 --> 00:30:12,800
understand a little better. 
Why these people were so 

548
00:30:12,808 --> 00:30:16,200
formidable, they lived every 
day, as practice for the kind of

549
00:30:16,200 --> 00:30:18,900
endurance and Mobility, that 
would later allow them to 

550
00:30:18,900 --> 00:30:22,400
conquer half the Known World. 
There was no separation between 

551
00:30:22,400 --> 00:30:24,600
daily life and Military 
preparedness. 

552
00:30:24,600 --> 00:30:28,300
Every skill needed for survival 
was also a skill needed for 

553
00:30:28,300 --> 00:30:31,500
Warfare. 
The riding, the archery, the 

554
00:30:31,500 --> 00:30:34,800
ability to endure hardship and 
maintain function, and the 

555
00:30:34,800 --> 00:30:37,200
coordination developed through 
constant Group movement. 

556
00:30:37,200 --> 00:30:41,000
All of it, translated directly 
into military capability. 

557
00:30:41,000 --> 00:30:44,800
You're watching ten in his late 
20s now and something 

558
00:30:44,800 --> 00:30:48,500
fundamental as shifted. 
The desperate orphan is gone 

559
00:30:48,500 --> 00:30:51,400
replaced by someone, who moves 
through the political landscape 

560
00:30:51,400 --> 00:30:54,600
of the step like he's reading a 
map, no one else can see. 

561
00:30:54,600 --> 00:30:57,200
He's gathered followers, not 
through. 

562
00:30:57,300 --> 00:31:00,700
Birth or inherited Prestige. 
But through a combination of 

563
00:31:00,700 --> 00:31:04,800
military success, strategic 
generosity and an emerging 

564
00:31:04,800 --> 00:31:09,000
reputation for fairness that 
makes people think maybe just 

565
00:31:09,000 --> 00:31:13,100
maybe following him might lead 
somewhere interesting. 

566
00:31:13,100 --> 00:31:16,600
His relationship with power is 
different from the traditional 

567
00:31:16,600 --> 00:31:19,400
step model. 
Most Chiefs inherit their 

568
00:31:19,408 --> 00:31:23,200
position and rely on family 
connections, and the Loyalty of 

569
00:31:23,200 --> 00:31:26,100
their Clan temujin, has had to 
build his following from 

570
00:31:26,100 --> 00:31:29,600
scratch, which means everyone 
who follows him has made an 

571
00:31:29,600 --> 00:31:32,000
active choice to do. 
So this creates a different 

572
00:31:32,000 --> 00:31:35,700
Dynamic, his followers are 
invested in his success in ways 

573
00:31:35,700 --> 00:31:37,700
that hereditary subjects might 
not be. 

574
00:31:38,600 --> 00:31:42,000
But they also feel entitled to 
share and rewards to have their 

575
00:31:42,000 --> 00:31:46,200
voices heard, and to receive the
benefits they signed up for his 

576
00:31:46,200 --> 00:31:48,900
break with yawmuka comes 
gradually, then all at once 

577
00:31:48,900 --> 00:31:51,600
they're both attracting 
followers and building power 

578
00:31:51,600 --> 00:31:53,700
bases. 
And the step isn't really big 

579
00:31:53,700 --> 00:31:56,600
enough for two ambitious, men 
who used to be brothers, the 

580
00:31:56,600 --> 00:32:00,200
proximate cause is a dispute 
over stolen horses, always 

581
00:32:00,200 --> 00:32:04,100
horses, the currency of Step, 
wealth and power, But the 

582
00:32:04,100 --> 00:32:07,000
underlying issue is that they've
developed incompatible vision 

583
00:32:07,000 --> 00:32:08,800
for how power should be 
structured. 

584
00:32:08,800 --> 00:32:12,400
Jamaica represents the 
traditional aristocracy leaving 

585
00:32:12,400 --> 00:32:15,100
that Noble birth and family. 
Connections, should determine 

586
00:32:15,100 --> 00:32:20,200
who leads 10 by his years of 
poverty and exclusion but 

587
00:32:20,200 --> 00:32:22,900
believes that competence and 
loyalty should determine rank 

588
00:32:22,900 --> 00:32:26,100
the split crystallizes at a 
feast were followers. 

589
00:32:26,100 --> 00:32:29,800
Must choose which man to support
You watch Warriors, making 

590
00:32:29,800 --> 00:32:31,700
calculations weighing their 
options. 

591
00:32:31,700 --> 00:32:36,000
Some follow Family Ties 
supporting Jamaica because their

592
00:32:36,000 --> 00:32:38,800
Clans have always been allied 
with his others. 

593
00:32:38,800 --> 00:32:42,100
The opportunity with tumugon, 
believing that someone building 

594
00:32:42,100 --> 00:32:45,100
a new system, might reward them 
better than someone maintaining 

595
00:32:45,100 --> 00:32:47,700
an old one. 
The division is roughly even at 

596
00:32:47,700 --> 00:32:51,400
first, but TAMU Jin has been 
strategic about who he courts 

597
00:32:51,400 --> 00:32:54,800
targeting talented Warriors, who
feel undervalued by the 

598
00:32:54,800 --> 00:32:58,600
traditional system, people who 
have something to prove the 

599
00:32:58,600 --> 00:33:01,000
battle at Dallin. 
Belle's, is messy and 

600
00:33:01,000 --> 00:33:04,500
inconclusive the kind of fight 
where both sides claimed Victory

601
00:33:04,500 --> 00:33:09,100
and both are probably lying. 
forces meet on an open plane and

602
00:33:09,100 --> 00:33:12,000
its chaos. 
Thousands of mounted Warriors. 

603
00:33:12,000 --> 00:33:16,200
Swirling in combat arrows, 
darkening, the sky and the sound

604
00:33:16,200 --> 00:33:20,200
of impact and screaming filling 
the air temperature's forces, 

605
00:33:20,200 --> 00:33:23,000
don't break, which is a victory 
of sorts, but he doesn't win 

606
00:33:23,000 --> 00:33:26,400
decisively either. 
What matters is what he does. 

607
00:33:26,400 --> 00:33:30,000
Afterward you watch him treat 
captured enemies with unexpected

608
00:33:30,000 --> 00:33:32,800
lenient sea. 
Offering them the chance to join

609
00:33:32,800 --> 00:33:36,800
his forces rather than killing 
them outright His speech to the 

610
00:33:36,808 --> 00:33:39,800
captives is pragmatic rather 
than inspirational. 

611
00:33:39,800 --> 00:33:42,800
He doesn't promise easy Victory 
or certain wealth. 

612
00:33:42,800 --> 00:33:46,300
Instead, he offers them a place 
in a system where their skills 

613
00:33:46,300 --> 00:33:49,100
will be recognized, where 
promotion comes from 

614
00:33:49,100 --> 00:33:52,900
performance, rather than birth 
and where The Spoils of future 

615
00:33:52,900 --> 00:33:57,300
victories will be distributed. 
Fairly some accept calculating 

616
00:33:57,300 --> 00:34:00,700
the leader, who spares enemies 
might be worth following others.

617
00:34:00,700 --> 00:34:04,500
Refuse choosing death or slavery
over joining their captor and 

618
00:34:04,500 --> 00:34:06,900
temujin has them executed 
without ceremony. 

619
00:34:06,900 --> 00:34:11,100
The message is clear. 
Join me and prosper, resistant, 

620
00:34:11,100 --> 00:34:13,500
die. 
But betray me after joining and 

621
00:34:13,500 --> 00:34:15,300
your death will be considerably 
worse. 

622
00:34:15,300 --> 00:34:19,300
He's building something new. 
You realize the traditional step

623
00:34:19,300 --> 00:34:22,400
model was tried base, your 
loyalty, determined by Blood 

624
00:34:22,400 --> 00:34:26,400
relationships, your clan your 
Universe Tamara genius, 

625
00:34:26,400 --> 00:34:29,699
systematically dismantling the 
structure organizing his 

626
00:34:29,699 --> 00:34:32,800
followers, by military unit, 
rather than tribal affiliation 

627
00:34:32,800 --> 00:34:36,400
promoting based on competence 
rather than family, connections,

628
00:34:36,400 --> 00:34:40,500
and creating a meritocracy that 
terrifies the old aristocracy 

629
00:34:40,500 --> 00:34:43,199
because it means their birth 
does not guarantee the anything 

630
00:34:43,199 --> 00:34:46,199
the decimal system. 
He implements is brilliant. 

631
00:34:46,199 --> 00:34:51,900
In its Simplicity units of 10 
100,000 and 10,000 each with a 

632
00:34:51,900 --> 00:34:54,400
clear command structure and 
responsibilities. 

633
00:34:55,199 --> 00:34:58,800
An arban of Ten Men is commanded
by the best warrior among them. 

634
00:34:58,800 --> 00:35:02,600
Ten are bands, former yakun of 
100 commanded by the best. 

635
00:35:02,600 --> 00:35:06,500
Arbonne leader. 
Tengen's, former mingun of 1,000

636
00:35:06,500 --> 00:35:09,100
and so on up to the tumor of 
10,000. 

637
00:35:09,800 --> 00:35:14,300
A warrior knows exactly where he
fits, who he reports to, and who

638
00:35:14,300 --> 00:35:17,100
reports to him. 
It's portable and scalable. 

639
00:35:17,100 --> 00:35:20,900
And it means that when the Army 
moves, it moves as one organism 

640
00:35:20,900 --> 00:35:23,700
rather than a collection of 
independent tribal groups 

641
00:35:23,700 --> 00:35:27,200
pursuing their own agendas, what
makes the system revolutionary 

642
00:35:27,200 --> 00:35:30,700
is that it deliberately breaks 
up tribal loyalties men from 

643
00:35:30,700 --> 00:35:33,500
different Clans get mixed 
together in the same units. 

644
00:35:34,200 --> 00:35:37,100
Forced to develop loyalty to 
their new brothers in arms, 

645
00:35:37,100 --> 00:35:39,300
rather than their traditional 
family groups. 

646
00:35:40,100 --> 00:35:42,400
The commanders who prove 
themselves get promoted 

647
00:35:42,400 --> 00:35:45,900
regardless of where they came 
from temujin, even incorporates 

648
00:35:45,900 --> 00:35:49,600
former enemies into his units. 
Understanding that demonstrated 

649
00:35:49,600 --> 00:35:52,300
competence matters more than 
passed, allegiances. 

650
00:35:53,100 --> 00:35:55,600
You watch him conducting a 
training exercise and the 

651
00:35:55,600 --> 00:35:57,900
organization is impressive 
units. 

652
00:35:57,900 --> 00:36:01,500
Respond to signal flags and 
whistles, executing coordinated 

653
00:36:01,500 --> 00:36:04,100
Maneuvers that require each 
level of command to understand 

654
00:36:04,100 --> 00:36:07,500
and Implement their role. 
The practice, involves fake 

655
00:36:07,500 --> 00:36:10,900
raids on a mock enemy camp. 
And you see the tactics that 

656
00:36:10,900 --> 00:36:12,900
will later terrorize armies 
across Eurasia. 

657
00:36:13,900 --> 00:36:16,600
Feigned Retreat that draws 
enemies into ambushes. 

658
00:36:16,600 --> 00:36:19,800
The use of a light Cavalry to 
harass an exhaust. 

659
00:36:19,800 --> 00:36:23,500
Before heavy Cavalry, delivers 
the decisive blow, and the 

660
00:36:23,508 --> 00:36:26,300
coordination between units that 
allows them to appear to be 

661
00:36:26,308 --> 00:36:28,700
everywhere. 
At once his intelligence 

662
00:36:28,700 --> 00:36:32,600
gathering is sophisticated for 
this era, you meet men, whose 

663
00:36:32,600 --> 00:36:35,600
primary job is traveling to 
distant regions, learning 

664
00:36:35,600 --> 00:36:40,400
languages, mapping, terrain, and
identifying potential allies and

665
00:36:40,400 --> 00:36:43,100
enemies. 
They poses Merchants wandering 

666
00:36:43,100 --> 00:36:45,500
monks and refugees from distant 
Wars. 

667
00:36:45,500 --> 00:36:48,700
They gather information about 
military strength, political 

668
00:36:48,700 --> 00:36:52,100
factions, economic conditions, 
and anything that might be 

669
00:36:52,100 --> 00:36:54,900
useful when to move in. 
Eventually turns his attention 

670
00:36:54,900 --> 00:36:57,500
to Conquest be on the step your 
present. 

671
00:36:57,500 --> 00:37:01,100
At the cruelty of 12006, the 
great Gathering where the 

672
00:37:01,100 --> 00:37:04,600
various Mongol Clans formally 
acknowledged him as Genghis, 

673
00:37:04,600 --> 00:37:09,200
Khan roughly Universal ruler, 
Though the translation, never 

674
00:37:09,200 --> 00:37:13,000
quite captures the full meaning 
which suggests something closer 

675
00:37:13,000 --> 00:37:16,700
to Fierce ruler or ocean, ruler,
implying power, vast and 

676
00:37:16,700 --> 00:37:19,700
implacable as the sea. 
The ceremony is elaborate 

677
00:37:19,700 --> 00:37:22,400
involving shamans and sacrifices
and formal. 

678
00:37:22,400 --> 00:37:26,400
Oaths But underneath the ritual 
is hard political reality. 

679
00:37:26,400 --> 00:37:29,600
These Clans are agreeing to 
follow him because he's proven, 

680
00:37:29,600 --> 00:37:31,900
he can lead them to Victory. 
Can distribute. 

681
00:37:31,900 --> 00:37:36,100
Spoils fairly can protect them 
from enemies and can offer them 

682
00:37:36,100 --> 00:37:38,800
something more valuable than 
their traditional Independence. 

683
00:37:38,800 --> 00:37:42,600
The chance to be part of 
something larger, something that

684
00:37:42,600 --> 00:37:45,000
might last. 
You watch, Warriors, taking 

685
00:37:45,000 --> 00:37:48,000
Oaths of loyalty, swearing to 
follow Genghis, Khan to death, 

686
00:37:48,008 --> 00:37:52,300
to never abandon their comrades,
and to share in both Victory and

687
00:37:52,300 --> 00:37:54,900
defeat. 
The Oaths of binding in ways 

688
00:37:54,900 --> 00:37:58,800
that transcend me a words, 
breaking them bring shame, not 

689
00:37:58,800 --> 00:38:03,100
just to the individual, but to 
their entire family curses that 

690
00:38:03,100 --> 00:38:06,400
follow them through life and 
into death, his law code. 

691
00:38:06,400 --> 00:38:10,000
The Assassin starts taking shape
around this time, you listened 

692
00:38:10,000 --> 00:38:11,900
as he lays out. 
Rules that seem designed to 

693
00:38:11,900 --> 00:38:16,300
prevent the exact kind of chaos 
that dominated his youth, theft 

694
00:38:16,300 --> 00:38:20,500
is harshly punished often with 
death because in a nomadic 

695
00:38:20,500 --> 00:38:23,900
Society, where property is 
limited and valuable stealing 

696
00:38:23,900 --> 00:38:29,200
threatens everyone, survival The
punishment is public performed 

697
00:38:29,200 --> 00:38:32,800
in ways that make it memorable. 
Adultery is forbidden and 

698
00:38:32,800 --> 00:38:36,600
family, bonds are sacred because
stable families mean a stable 

699
00:38:36,608 --> 00:38:40,900
Society, the penalties are 
severe Extending to both parties

700
00:38:40,900 --> 00:38:43,300
involved. 
Sending a message that some 

701
00:38:43,300 --> 00:38:46,200
behaviors will not be tolerated,
regardless of who commits them 

702
00:38:46,200 --> 00:38:50,100
loyalty is elevated, above 
almost everything else because 

703
00:38:50,100 --> 00:38:53,600
an army where Warriors switch 
sides, whenever convenient is no

704
00:38:53,600 --> 00:38:56,900
Army at all. 
Desertion in battle brings death

705
00:38:56,900 --> 00:38:59,900
but so does abandoning wounded 
comrades. 

706
00:38:59,900 --> 00:39:04,300
A warrior who leaves a brother 
behind faces execution, while 

707
00:39:04,300 --> 00:39:07,100
one who retrieves, a wounded, 
comrade earns reward and 

708
00:39:07,100 --> 00:39:09,600
recognition. 
The code creates a culture where

709
00:39:09,600 --> 00:39:14,000
Mutual support isn't just 
encouraged its mandated making 

710
00:39:14,000 --> 00:39:17,100
the Army significantly more 
effective because Warriors know 

711
00:39:17,100 --> 00:39:18,600
their comrades won't abandon 
them. 

712
00:39:18,600 --> 00:39:21,800
There's an interesting tension 
in the code between harshness 

713
00:39:21,800 --> 00:39:24,300
and fairness. 
The punishments are severe, 

714
00:39:24,300 --> 00:39:28,300
certainly, but they apply 
equally a noble who steals faces

715
00:39:28,300 --> 00:39:31,600
the same consequences as a 
commoner, who steals a 

716
00:39:31,600 --> 00:39:34,100
commander, who fails through 
incompetence gets replaced, 

717
00:39:34,100 --> 00:39:35,700
regardless of his family 
connections. 

718
00:39:35,700 --> 00:39:39,600
A wealthy Merchant, who cheats 
receives the same treatment as a

719
00:39:39,600 --> 00:39:43,000
poor herder, who cheats this 
meritocratic and brutal. 

720
00:39:43,000 --> 00:39:47,100
And it creates a society where 
Talent can rise but mistakes, 

721
00:39:47,100 --> 00:39:51,500
carry genuine consequences. 
Religious tolerance becomes one 

722
00:39:51,500 --> 00:39:55,000
of his unexpected policies. 
You watch him, Grant exemptions 

723
00:39:55,000 --> 00:39:59,300
to shamans Buddhist monks, 
Muslim imams, and Christian 

724
00:39:59,300 --> 00:40:03,200
priests Anyone devoted to 
spiritual matters, gets a pass 

725
00:40:03,208 --> 00:40:07,400
from taxes and military service.
It's partly pragmatic why 

726
00:40:07,400 --> 00:40:10,400
alienate potential subjects over
something as abstract as 

727
00:40:10,400 --> 00:40:13,200
theology. 
But there's also a genuine 

728
00:40:13,200 --> 00:40:16,700
curiosity about different belief
systems, a willingness to see 

729
00:40:16,700 --> 00:40:19,500
what works and adopt it 
regardless of where it comes 

730
00:40:19,500 --> 00:40:21,700
from. 
He consults shamans for 

731
00:40:21,700 --> 00:40:24,900
traditional guidance, but also 
listens to Buddhist monks, 

732
00:40:24,900 --> 00:40:27,500
discussing philosophy and 
Muslim, Scholars explaining 

733
00:40:27,500 --> 00:40:30,600
mathematics. 
The intelligence Network, he 

734
00:40:30,600 --> 00:40:34,800
builds his sophisticated almost 
modern Merchants who travels 

735
00:40:34,800 --> 00:40:38,100
territories are debriefed about 
conditions prices and political 

736
00:40:38,100 --> 00:40:42,000
situations in distant regions. 
They provide information, not 

737
00:40:42,000 --> 00:40:45,000
through coercion. 
But through incentive Genghis, 

738
00:40:45,000 --> 00:40:48,400
Khan protects trade, which means
Merchants Prosper under his 

739
00:40:48,400 --> 00:40:51,200
rule, which means they're 
willing to share what they know.

740
00:40:52,000 --> 00:40:54,900
Spies are Center head of 
military campaigns, sometimes 

741
00:40:54,900 --> 00:40:59,300
years, in advance, learning 
languages mapping terrain and 

742
00:40:59,300 --> 00:41:02,700
identifying factions within 
Target cities, who might be 

743
00:41:02,700 --> 00:41:06,700
bribed or persuaded to cooperate
by the time, Mongol armies 

744
00:41:06,700 --> 00:41:09,700
arrived at a city, they often 
know more about its defenses 

745
00:41:09,700 --> 00:41:12,400
than the Defenders. 
Do they know which gates are 

746
00:41:12,400 --> 00:41:14,900
weakest, where water supply is, 
enter the city. 

747
00:41:14,900 --> 00:41:19,000
What internal politics might be 
exploited and which Merchants 

748
00:41:19,000 --> 00:41:21,800
might be willing to open gates 
in exchange for Promises of 

749
00:41:21,800 --> 00:41:25,000
safety and profit. 
This transforms Warfare from a 

750
00:41:25,008 --> 00:41:28,300
simple application of force into
something more sophisticated, 

751
00:41:28,300 --> 00:41:32,800
more strategic, and more likely 
to succeed with minimal. 

752
00:41:32,800 --> 00:41:36,700
Casualties among Mongol forces, 
your standing at a caravan 

753
00:41:36,700 --> 00:41:38,900
serai. 
Now, one of the four to five 

754
00:41:38,900 --> 00:41:41,800
rest stops that dot, the trade 
routes, connecting Eastern West,

755
00:41:41,800 --> 00:41:45,300
and the diversity of people here
would astonish anyone who 

756
00:41:45,300 --> 00:41:48,300
thought the Medieval World was 
isolated and provincial. 

757
00:41:48,300 --> 00:41:50,800
There are Chinese Merchants with
silks. 

758
00:41:50,800 --> 00:41:53,900
So fine it. 
Catches light like water the 

759
00:41:53,900 --> 00:41:56,200
fabric moving with an almost 
liquid quality. 

760
00:41:56,200 --> 00:41:59,400
That makes you understand why it
was worth its weighting gold, 

761
00:41:59,400 --> 00:42:03,200
Persian Traders, offer spices 
that smell like concentrated 

762
00:42:03,200 --> 00:42:06,100
Sunshine. 
Saffron cardamom cinnamon and 

763
00:42:06,100 --> 00:42:09,300
Nutmeg Aromas. 
So intense, they make your head 

764
00:42:09,300 --> 00:42:13,100
swim Russian thirdly as Fred 
pelts, that could keep someone 

765
00:42:13,100 --> 00:42:16,500
warm through any winter. 
Sable, fox bear wolf. 

766
00:42:17,300 --> 00:42:20,900
Their price is negotiated in a 
mixture of languages and hand 

767
00:42:20,900 --> 00:42:23,600
gestures that somehow 
communicates, precise value, 

768
00:42:23,600 --> 00:42:26,900
Indian, Merchants, displayed 
gems that flash colors. 

769
00:42:26,900 --> 00:42:30,800
You didn't know existed, 
Sapphires, like captured Sky 

770
00:42:30,800 --> 00:42:34,800
rubies like Frozen fire and 
emeralds, that hold the green of

771
00:42:34,800 --> 00:42:37,900
Deep Jungle. 
The building itself is practical

772
00:42:37,900 --> 00:42:42,000
thick walls that can be defended
a central Courtyard where 

773
00:42:42,000 --> 00:42:45,300
animals can be secured at night,
rooms around the perimeter for 

774
00:42:45,308 --> 00:42:49,200
sleeping and a common area where
meals get served and Deals, get 

775
00:42:49,200 --> 00:42:53,400
negotiated, the architecture, 
reflects Persian influence with 

776
00:42:53,400 --> 00:42:55,700
arched, doorways and decorative 
tile work. 

777
00:42:55,700 --> 00:42:59,500
But adapted to local materials 
and defensive requirements. 

778
00:42:59,500 --> 00:43:03,800
There are wells that provide 
fresh water stores of grain in 

779
00:43:03,800 --> 00:43:07,600
case Caravans arrived, depleted 
blacksmiths who can repair 

780
00:43:07,600 --> 00:43:10,700
equipment. 
And always guards who watch for 

781
00:43:10,700 --> 00:43:14,500
Bandits or hostile forces. 
The Mongol approached to trade 

782
00:43:14,500 --> 00:43:18,500
is refreshingly straightforward,
protect, the merchants tax them 

783
00:43:18,500 --> 00:43:20,400
reasonably and stay out of their
way. 

784
00:43:21,400 --> 00:43:23,300
Under Genghis Khan and his 
successors. 

785
00:43:23,300 --> 00:43:26,900
The Silk Road become safer than 
it's been in centuries. 

786
00:43:26,900 --> 00:43:30,600
The paiser system helps 
immensely, he's a tablets of 

787
00:43:30,608 --> 00:43:33,200
authority, usually bronze or 
silver. 

788
00:43:33,200 --> 00:43:37,200
Sometimes gold for the most 
important bearers inscribed with

789
00:43:37,208 --> 00:43:40,600
text and the Khan seal, they 
essentially function as 

790
00:43:40,600 --> 00:43:45,200
passports, granted to Merchants 
and envoys guaranteeing safe 

791
00:43:45,200 --> 00:43:46,700
Passage through Mongol 
territory. 

792
00:43:47,600 --> 00:43:50,100
Soldiers who harassed? 
Someone carrying a paiser face 

793
00:43:50,100 --> 00:43:53,800
severe punishment which means 
the system actually works the 

794
00:43:53,800 --> 00:43:57,100
tablets carry weight because 
everyone knows that interfering 

795
00:43:57,100 --> 00:43:59,500
with a paiser holder means 
answering to the Khan himself. 

796
00:44:00,700 --> 00:44:04,700
You watch a caravan preparing to
depart the organization involved

797
00:44:04,700 --> 00:44:07,100
is impressive. 
The camels are loaded with 

798
00:44:07,108 --> 00:44:10,900
practice efficiency Goods packed
and balance to prevent shifting 

799
00:44:10,900 --> 00:44:14,100
during travel. 
Each animal carries perhaps 400 

800
00:44:14,100 --> 00:44:17,300
pounds, distributed in 
carefully, balanced loads on 

801
00:44:17,300 --> 00:44:20,300
either side, the Packers are 
skilled professionals who can 

802
00:44:20,300 --> 00:44:22,600
judge weight by I and create 
stable. 

803
00:44:22,600 --> 00:44:25,400
Loads, that will travel hundreds
of miles without coming loose. 

804
00:44:25,400 --> 00:44:29,300
Guards are hired often Mongol 
veterans, who've retired from 

805
00:44:29,300 --> 00:44:31,700
active military service, but 
still know how to use their 

806
00:44:31,700 --> 00:44:35,600
weapons men whose reputation for
competence makes Bandits think 

807
00:44:35,600 --> 00:44:38,100
twice about attacking the root 
is plan. 

808
00:44:38,100 --> 00:44:40,300
Carefully accounting for water 
sources. 

809
00:44:40,300 --> 00:44:43,500
Absolutely. 
Critical in desert regions were 

810
00:44:43,500 --> 00:44:46,200
going, dry means death for 
animals and humans alike. 

811
00:44:46,200 --> 00:44:49,100
There are maps though, not in 
any form. 

812
00:44:49,100 --> 00:44:52,400
You recognize more like mental 
catalogs of landmarks and 

813
00:44:52,400 --> 00:44:55,400
distance is that experienced 
Travelers carry in their heads? 

814
00:44:55,400 --> 00:44:59,100
They know that from this Caravan
strike to the next is 3 days 

815
00:44:59,100 --> 00:45:01,800
travel, if the weather 
cooperates That there's a 

816
00:45:01,800 --> 00:45:03,900
reliable. 
Well halfway and that they 

817
00:45:03,900 --> 00:45:06,800
mounted passes usually clear 
from late spring through Early 

818
00:45:06,800 --> 00:45:11,300
Autumn, but becomes impossible. 
Once the snow start the 

819
00:45:11,300 --> 00:45:14,300
conversations, you overhear a 
fascinating, a mixture of 

820
00:45:14,308 --> 00:45:18,000
languages, Chinese Persian 
Arabic Turkish and Mongolian. 

821
00:45:18,700 --> 00:45:22,100
with most experienced Travelers 
knowing at least a smattering of

822
00:45:22,100 --> 00:45:26,100
multiple tongues a Persian 
merchants and a Chinese Trader 

823
00:45:26,100 --> 00:45:29,700
are negotiating, the price of 
silk Using a combination of 

824
00:45:29,700 --> 00:45:33,100
their respective languages plus 
a trade pigeon, that's emerged 

825
00:45:33,100 --> 00:45:36,000
along the Route. 
A practical Creole that 

826
00:45:36,000 --> 00:45:40,000
facilitates Commerce numbers get
worked out on abacuses or by 

827
00:45:40,000 --> 00:45:43,600
scratching calculations in the 
dust and prices are adjusted 

828
00:45:43,600 --> 00:45:47,200
based on quality quantity and 
market conditions in various 

829
00:45:47,200 --> 00:45:50,700
cities. 
The postal system, the yam is 

830
00:45:50,700 --> 00:45:54,000
even more impressive. 
You see Riders arriving at relay

831
00:45:54,000 --> 00:45:57,000
stations switching to Fresh 
Horses and the time it takes to 

832
00:45:57,000 --> 00:46:00,000
gulp down some water and perhaps
grab a handful of food. 

833
00:46:00,000 --> 00:46:03,600
They carry messages that 
sometimes travel 100 miles in a 

834
00:46:03,600 --> 00:46:06,700
day occasionally more when the 
root is good and the urgency 

835
00:46:06,700 --> 00:46:11,900
High The stations are spaced 
about 25 miles apart a distance,

836
00:46:11,900 --> 00:46:14,200
a horse can cover its speed 
without collapsing. 

837
00:46:14,200 --> 00:46:17,600
The system allows the calm to 
communicate with commanders, 

838
00:46:17,600 --> 00:46:21,300
thousands of miles away to 
coordinate military campaigns 

839
00:46:21,300 --> 00:46:25,400
across continents and to receive
intelligence and send orders 

840
00:46:25,400 --> 00:46:27,900
faster than any previous Empire 
managed. 

841
00:46:27,900 --> 00:46:31,200
The Riders themselves are tough 
weathered men who have proven 

842
00:46:31,200 --> 00:46:33,900
themselves capable of enduring, 
the hardships of constant 

843
00:46:33,900 --> 00:46:36,100
travel. 
They know the routes intimately 

844
00:46:36,100 --> 00:46:39,200
can navigate in the dark and can
read weather signs that tell 

845
00:46:39,200 --> 00:46:42,300
them when to seek shelter and 
when to push on, they carry 

846
00:46:42,300 --> 00:46:44,600
cylindrical message. 
Containers strapped, their 

847
00:46:44,600 --> 00:46:47,900
bodies made from leather or 
bamboo sealed to protect 

848
00:46:47,900 --> 00:46:50,200
contents. 
From whether the message is 

849
00:46:50,200 --> 00:46:53,300
themselves are written on silk 
when available because silk is 

850
00:46:53,300 --> 00:46:56,600
light and durable or on special 
paper treated to resist. 

851
00:46:56,600 --> 00:46:59,200
Moisture. 
Cultural exchange happens. 

852
00:46:59,200 --> 00:47:01,100
Almost accidentally along these 
routes. 

853
00:47:01,900 --> 00:47:04,600
You see Chinese paper making 
techniques traveling west. 

854
00:47:05,600 --> 00:47:08,600
Persian Merchants watching a 
Chinese paper maker and 

855
00:47:08,600 --> 00:47:11,400
realizing he could. 
Replicate the process back home 

856
00:47:11,400 --> 00:47:15,200
that knowledge worth more than 
any single load of trade goods. 

857
00:47:15,200 --> 00:47:19,100
Personal astronomical knowledge,
heads East carried by Scholars 

858
00:47:19,100 --> 00:47:22,700
fleeing political instability 
finding Eagle audience is in 

859
00:47:22,700 --> 00:47:25,400
Chinese courts interested in 
improving, their calendar 

860
00:47:25,400 --> 00:47:28,300
systems. 
European metal, working methods 

861
00:47:28,300 --> 00:47:31,700
show up in Central, Asian 
workshops taught by captured 

862
00:47:31,700 --> 00:47:34,600
craftsmen who have been the 
choice between teaching, their 

863
00:47:34,600 --> 00:47:38,100
skills or dieing. 
The Mongols themselves adopt 

864
00:47:38,100 --> 00:47:40,000
freely from the cultures they 
encounter. 

865
00:47:40,000 --> 00:47:43,300
You watch Chinese Siege 
Engineers being integrated into 

866
00:47:43,300 --> 00:47:46,100
Mongol armies. 
Their knowledge of catapults and

867
00:47:46,108 --> 00:47:48,200
trebuchets transforming the 
Mongols. 

868
00:47:48,200 --> 00:47:51,300
From steppe, Raiders into 
forces, capable of reducing 

869
00:47:51,300 --> 00:47:54,400
fortified cities. 
Persian administrators get 

870
00:47:54,400 --> 00:47:57,900
recruited to manage conquered 
territories, their experience 

871
00:47:57,900 --> 00:48:01,400
with complex bureaucracies 
proving invaluable, captured 

872
00:48:01,400 --> 00:48:04,200
Craftsmen from everywhere, get 
established and workshops 

873
00:48:04,200 --> 00:48:08,200
teaching their skills to 
apprentices creating Goods that 

874
00:48:08,200 --> 00:48:10,300
blend technique from multiple 
traditions. 

875
00:48:11,400 --> 00:48:15,000
The wealth flowing through these
trade routes is staggering a 

876
00:48:15,000 --> 00:48:17,500
successful. 
Merchant can retire Rich after a

877
00:48:17,500 --> 00:48:21,000
single Journey from Beijing to 
Bagdad assuming they survived 

878
00:48:21,000 --> 00:48:24,500
the trip and avoid being robbed,
both significant assumptions. 

879
00:48:24,500 --> 00:48:28,700
The profits, a large enough to 
justify the risks silk purchased

880
00:48:28,700 --> 00:48:30,800
in China. 
For silver, might sell in Persia

881
00:48:30,800 --> 00:48:35,300
for three times what it costs 
and Persian carpets or glassware

882
00:48:35,300 --> 00:48:37,500
can command. 
Similar markups, when sold in 

883
00:48:37,500 --> 00:48:41,100
China, the taxes collected from 
this trade helped fund, the 

884
00:48:41,100 --> 00:48:44,800
Empire's military operations, 
creating a feedback loop where 

885
00:48:44,800 --> 00:48:49,000
successful conquests make trades
safer, which generates more tax 

886
00:48:49,000 --> 00:48:52,800
revenue which funds more 
conquests, you notice how 

887
00:48:52,800 --> 00:48:58,100
Cosmopolitan the larger cities 
become Karakorum the capital 

888
00:48:58,100 --> 00:49:02,500
established by ogre day host 
Buddhist temples Muslim, mosques

889
00:49:02,500 --> 00:49:06,500
Christian churches. 
And shamanistic shrines, often 

890
00:49:06,500 --> 00:49:09,600
within sight of each other 
Scholars debate, Theology and 

891
00:49:09,600 --> 00:49:13,700
marketplaces scientists exchange
ideas in multilingual, 

892
00:49:13,700 --> 00:49:17,700
discussions facilitated by 
translators and artists blend 

893
00:49:17,700 --> 00:49:20,900
styles from different 
Traditions, it's messy and 

894
00:49:20,908 --> 00:49:23,900
chaotic, and occasionally 
violent when religious tensions 

895
00:49:23,900 --> 00:49:27,500
flare, but it's also genuinely 
Innovative in ways, that 

896
00:49:27,500 --> 00:49:32,100
isolated homogeneous societies, 
rarely manage the food available

897
00:49:32,100 --> 00:49:34,600
in these trade in cities, 
reflects the routes, passing 

898
00:49:34,600 --> 00:49:36,700
through them. 
You find yourself in a 

899
00:49:36,700 --> 00:49:39,200
marketplace where Chinese 
noodles, sit outside, Persian 

900
00:49:39,200 --> 00:49:42,800
rice, dishes, Russian bread, 
shares shelf, space with Indian,

901
00:49:42,800 --> 00:49:46,500
flatbreads and Central Asian 
dumplings compete, with Middle 

902
00:49:46,500 --> 00:49:49,400
Eastern. 
Stews, the Cuisines blend and 

903
00:49:49,400 --> 00:49:52,500
influence each other creating 
Fusion dishes that wouldn't 

904
00:49:52,500 --> 00:49:54,900
exist without this forced 
proximity. 

905
00:49:56,000 --> 00:49:58,800
Noodle dishes, seasoned with 
Middle Eastern spices, 

906
00:49:58,800 --> 00:50:02,000
dumplings, filled with 
ingredients from multiple 

907
00:50:02,000 --> 00:50:06,300
culinary, traditions and breads,
incorporating techniques from 

908
00:50:06,300 --> 00:50:09,100
different baking. 
Cultures you try a dish that 

909
00:50:09,100 --> 00:50:12,000
combines elements from three 
different culinary traditions 

910
00:50:12,000 --> 00:50:15,800
and it works somehow the flavors
complimenting rather than 

911
00:50:15,800 --> 00:50:18,800
fighting each other. 
The Chinese noodles are served 

912
00:50:18,800 --> 00:50:22,100
in a Persian style source with 
spices that smell like India, 

913
00:50:22,100 --> 00:50:26,600
topped with meat prepared, using
Mongol techniques, it shouldn't 

914
00:50:26,600 --> 00:50:28,500
work but it does the different 
elements. 

915
00:50:28,500 --> 00:50:32,100
Balancing each other creating 
something new that's greater 

916
00:50:32,100 --> 00:50:36,800
than its component parts. 
At night, the Caravan. 

917
00:50:36,800 --> 00:50:39,300
Saray becomes something like a 
combination, Marketplace 

918
00:50:39,300 --> 00:50:41,900
Newsroom and Social Club 
Merchants. 

919
00:50:41,900 --> 00:50:43,700
Share information, about 
conditions ahead. 

920
00:50:43,700 --> 00:50:46,800
Warn each other about Bandits or
corrupt officials. 

921
00:50:46,800 --> 00:50:50,500
There's always someone trying to
extract unofficial taxes and 

922
00:50:50,500 --> 00:50:53,300
negotiate deals for the next leg
of their Journeys. 

923
00:50:53,300 --> 00:50:57,300
The information exchanges 
valuable sometimes more valuable

924
00:50:57,300 --> 00:51:00,200
than the physical Goods. 
Being traded a warning about 

925
00:51:00,200 --> 00:51:04,100
plague in a certain city, might 
save lives and fortunes news 

926
00:51:04,100 --> 00:51:07,800
about political instability. 
Might change route choices and 

927
00:51:07,800 --> 00:51:11,300
intelligence about good harvests
or famines affects pricing 

928
00:51:11,300 --> 00:51:14,400
strategies, someone produces a 
stringed instrument. 

929
00:51:14,400 --> 00:51:18,400
You don't recognize perhaps a 
person tar or a Chinese people 

930
00:51:18,400 --> 00:51:21,300
and someone else starts singing 
in a language. 

931
00:51:21,300 --> 00:51:24,900
You don't understand that the 
music itself, transcends, the 

932
00:51:24,900 --> 00:51:29,100
language barrier telling a story
about longing distance and the 

933
00:51:29,108 --> 00:51:33,300
peculiar loneliness of being far
from home others join in some 

934
00:51:33,300 --> 00:51:35,700
harmonizing some Adding 
percussion by slapping, their 

935
00:51:35,700 --> 00:51:39,100
knees or slapping hands, 
creating something spontaneous 

936
00:51:39,100 --> 00:51:42,700
and beautiful that exists. 
Only in this moment, never to be

937
00:51:42,700 --> 00:51:46,000
exactly replicated, your 
learning that the Silk Road 

938
00:51:46,000 --> 00:51:50,100
isn't really about silk, though,
silk certainly, travels it About

939
00:51:50,100 --> 00:51:55,100
the movement of everything, 
Goods ideas, Technologies, 

940
00:51:55,100 --> 00:52:00,600
religions, diseases and stories.
It's a network that connects 

941
00:52:00,600 --> 00:52:03,100
East and West in ways that shape
both. 

942
00:52:03,100 --> 00:52:07,300
That makes isolation impossible,
and that creates a medieval 

943
00:52:07,300 --> 00:52:10,000
World considerably more 
interconnected than most people.

944
00:52:10,000 --> 00:52:13,500
Imagine you're examining the 
administrative structure of the 

945
00:52:13,500 --> 00:52:16,800
Mongol Empire now. 
And it's more sophisticated than

946
00:52:16,800 --> 00:52:19,600
you expected from your initial 
assumptions about nomadic 

947
00:52:19,600 --> 00:52:22,400
conquerors. 
The common image of Mongol rule,

948
00:52:22,400 --> 00:52:25,200
as purely military conquest, 
followed by extractive 

949
00:52:25,200 --> 00:52:28,800
exploitation, Mrs. The 
complexity of how they actually 

950
00:52:28,800 --> 00:52:31,900
governed the territories, they 
acquired sure the military 

951
00:52:31,900 --> 00:52:36,400
conquest came first brutal 
efficient often horrified in its

952
00:52:36,400 --> 00:52:39,600
completeness, but afterwards 
came, the hard work of actually 

953
00:52:39,600 --> 00:52:42,700
running these places. 
Extracting resources without 

954
00:52:42,700 --> 00:52:46,500
killing the Golden Goose and 
maintaining order across vast 

955
00:52:46,500 --> 00:52:49,500
distances with limited Manpower.
The sense. 

956
00:52:50,100 --> 00:52:52,900
They Implement across conquered 
territories is comprehensive 

957
00:52:52,900 --> 00:52:56,100
almost oppressive in its 
thoroughness you watch 

958
00:52:56,100 --> 00:52:59,600
bureaucrats often recruited from
the local population because the

959
00:52:59,600 --> 00:53:01,300
Mongols lack sufficient 
literate. 

960
00:53:01,300 --> 00:53:04,600
Administrators of their own 
going door-to-door counting 

961
00:53:04,600 --> 00:53:08,000
people, livestock, and 
resources, every household gets 

962
00:53:08,000 --> 00:53:11,600
registered assigned, a number 
and recorded in documents that 

963
00:53:11,600 --> 00:53:14,700
eventually make their way to 
Regional administrators and 

964
00:53:14,700 --> 00:53:18,300
ultimately to karakoram. 
Every tax bill asset gets noted.

965
00:53:18,300 --> 00:53:22,600
How many horses sheep camels 
Acres of Farmland, workshops, 

966
00:53:22,600 --> 00:53:26,200
Wells and even trees if they're 
fruit bearing and represent 

967
00:53:26,200 --> 00:53:30,100
economic value, it seems 
invasive because it is, but it 

968
00:53:30,108 --> 00:53:32,700
all means the tax. 
Burden can be distributed more 

969
00:53:32,700 --> 00:53:35,900
fairly or at least more 
predictably and revenue 

970
00:53:35,900 --> 00:53:38,700
collection becomes systemic, 
rather than arbitrary. 

971
00:53:38,700 --> 00:53:42,100
The old system where Tax 
Collectors showed up demanding, 

972
00:53:42,100 --> 00:53:45,500
whatever, they felt like, 
demanding gets replaced by fixed

973
00:53:45,500 --> 00:53:48,100
rates. 
Based on a recorded assets, you 

974
00:53:48,100 --> 00:53:50,500
still pay a lot, but, you know, 
Roughly. 

975
00:53:50,500 --> 00:53:52,300
How much? 
And there's a course, if 

976
00:53:52,300 --> 00:53:56,100
collectors try to extract more 
than what's listed local rulers,

977
00:53:56,100 --> 00:53:58,700
who submit without fighting 
often keep their positions 

978
00:53:58,700 --> 00:54:01,900
though, now their answering to 
Mongol overseers called Darrow 

979
00:54:01,900 --> 00:54:04,100
gachi. 
You make sure tax revenue, flows

980
00:54:04,100 --> 00:54:06,000
correctly, and rebellions don't 
Brew. 

981
00:54:06,000 --> 00:54:08,700
It's a clever system that 
minimizes the number of 

982
00:54:08,708 --> 00:54:12,300
Administrators needed from the 
Mongol core population, which 

983
00:54:12,300 --> 00:54:14,600
remains small compared to the 
vast territories. 

984
00:54:14,600 --> 00:54:18,300
They control better to let local
Elites continue handling 

985
00:54:18,300 --> 00:54:22,600
day-to-day governance, they 
understand local Customs, speak 

986
00:54:22,600 --> 00:54:27,200
the language and know who's who,
While Mongol officials focus on 

987
00:54:27,200 --> 00:54:31,500
the big picture Revenue, 
military matters, maintaining 

988
00:54:31,500 --> 00:54:34,600
order and inuring the road, stay
safe. 

989
00:54:34,600 --> 00:54:38,700
The Dara usually veteran 
Warrior's men who have proven 

990
00:54:38,700 --> 00:54:41,700
themselves in conquest and 
understand both military matters

991
00:54:41,700 --> 00:54:45,800
and the empires priorities you 
meet one, a grizzled soldier 

992
00:54:45,800 --> 00:54:49,600
named Superette who now governs,
a Chinese Province larger than 

993
00:54:49,600 --> 00:54:52,700
many European kingdoms. 
He doesn't speak Chinese 

994
00:54:52,700 --> 00:54:56,200
fluently and relies on 
interpreters and local advisors,

995
00:54:56,200 --> 00:55:00,700
but he understands numbers and 
loyalty, he knows exactly how 

996
00:55:00,700 --> 00:55:03,300
much revenue is province. 
Should generate knows which 

997
00:55:03,308 --> 00:55:06,700
local officials are reliable, 
and which need watching and he's

998
00:55:06,700 --> 00:55:09,000
utterly ruthless about crushing 
dissent. 

999
00:55:09,000 --> 00:55:12,200
While being surprisingly lenient
about cultural practices that 

1000
00:55:12,200 --> 00:55:16,300
don't threaten Mongol interests,
the legal system gets reformed 

1001
00:55:16,300 --> 00:55:19,500
to reflect Mongol. 
Priorities criminal law becomes 

1002
00:55:19,500 --> 00:55:22,500
harsher and more consistent than
in many conquered territories. 

1003
00:55:22,500 --> 00:55:26,300
Murder carries, the death 
penalty applied swiftly and 

1004
00:55:26,300 --> 00:55:29,700
publicly, the special horse 
theft to bring severe 

1005
00:55:29,700 --> 00:55:33,600
punishment, often death 
sometimes mutilation as a 

1006
00:55:33,600 --> 00:55:36,100
warning to others. 
Adult tree is punished harshly 

1007
00:55:36,100 --> 00:55:38,400
though. 
You noticed the punishments fall

1008
00:55:38,400 --> 00:55:41,700
hard on women than men 
reflecting the patriarchal 

1009
00:55:41,700 --> 00:55:43,600
structures. 
The Mongols share with most 

1010
00:55:43,600 --> 00:55:46,600
conquered societies. 
Rake carries the death penalty, 

1011
00:55:46,600 --> 00:55:49,800
which is actually more severe 
than in many medieval legal 

1012
00:55:49,800 --> 00:55:52,800
codes. 
So enforcement varies depending 

1013
00:55:52,800 --> 00:55:56,200
on the status of the victim and 
perpetrator at the same time, 

1014
00:55:56,200 --> 00:55:59,700
commercial law becomes clearer 
and more favorable to Merchants 

1015
00:55:59,700 --> 00:56:03,000
than under previous regimes, 
contracts are enforced with the 

1016
00:56:03,008 --> 00:56:06,600
Empire's full backing, a 
merchant cheated in a deal can 

1017
00:56:06,600 --> 00:56:09,900
appeal to Mongol authorities who
will investigate and punish 

1018
00:56:09,900 --> 00:56:13,600
violators, regardless of their 
local status property rights, 

1019
00:56:13,600 --> 00:56:16,600
get protected better than 
before, less arbitrary, 

1020
00:56:16,600 --> 00:56:19,500
confiscation by local 
authorities who now answer to 

1021
00:56:19,500 --> 00:56:23,400
Mongol overseers interested in 
keeping Commerce flowing debts 

1022
00:56:23,400 --> 00:56:26,200
are enforced. 
Bankruptcy, regulated and 

1023
00:56:26,200 --> 00:56:29,500
Partnerships formalized in ways 
that make long distance trade 

1024
00:56:29,500 --> 00:56:32,600
less risky. 
You notice how the Mongols 

1025
00:56:32,600 --> 00:56:36,600
handle religious institutions 
cautiously, but not oppressively

1026
00:56:36,600 --> 00:56:40,200
unless provoked, religious 
leaders receive exemptions from 

1027
00:56:40,200 --> 00:56:44,000
taxes and military service. 
And in return, their expected to

1028
00:56:44,000 --> 00:56:45,800
pray for the car and not cause 
trouble. 

1029
00:56:46,600 --> 00:56:50,000
It's a pragmatic Arrangement 
that mostly Works Buddhist 

1030
00:56:50,000 --> 00:56:54,400
monasteries and Tibetan China 
continue their practices Muslim 

1031
00:56:54,400 --> 00:56:57,700
mosques throughout Central Asia 
and Persia maintain their 

1032
00:56:57,700 --> 00:57:01,400
rituals and Christian churches 
in Concord Russian territories. 

1033
00:57:01,400 --> 00:57:04,900
Keep celebrating their 
sacraments, the Mongols don't 

1034
00:57:04,900 --> 00:57:07,700
care which gods you worship. 
As long as you also acknowledge 

1035
00:57:07,700 --> 00:57:11,200
their sovereignty and pay your 
taxes tensions, occasionally 

1036
00:57:11,200 --> 00:57:14,400
flare, when religious 
authorities overstep, when a 

1037
00:57:14,400 --> 00:57:17,100
Buddhist Monastery starts 
accumulating too much wealth. 

1038
00:57:17,100 --> 00:57:19,700
Without paying taxes. 
When Muslim, clerics? 

1039
00:57:19,700 --> 00:57:23,100
Preach against Mongol rule, or 
when Christian priests claimed 

1040
00:57:23,100 --> 00:57:26,200
their Spiritual Authority. 
Supersedes temporal power. 

1041
00:57:26,200 --> 00:57:28,400
The Mongol response is 
consistent. 

1042
00:57:29,200 --> 00:57:32,600
Spiritual matters are yours to 
manage, but political Authority 

1043
00:57:32,600 --> 00:57:35,000
and economic obligations are 
non-negotiable. 

1044
00:57:35,800 --> 00:57:39,700
Step over that line and the 
exemptions disappear often 

1045
00:57:39,700 --> 00:57:43,000
violently the military 
Administration, remained Central

1046
00:57:43,000 --> 00:57:45,800
to everything. 
The Empire is divided into 

1047
00:57:45,800 --> 00:57:48,400
regions. 
Each responsible for providing a

1048
00:57:48,400 --> 00:57:51,600
certain number of Warriors when 
called upon the decimal system 

1049
00:57:51,600 --> 00:57:54,200
extends beyond the military 
proper into civilian 

1050
00:57:54,200 --> 00:57:57,300
Administration, units of 
households are assigned 

1051
00:57:57,300 --> 00:57:59,800
responsibility. 
For supporting specific military

1052
00:57:59,800 --> 00:58:04,400
units, creating clear chains of 
supply and support. 10 household

1053
00:58:04,400 --> 00:58:08,200
support, one soldier providing 
his equipment horses and 

1054
00:58:08,200 --> 00:58:10,500
Provisions. 
It's a system that makes 

1055
00:58:10,500 --> 00:58:14,500
military mobilization faster and
more predictable than the ad hoc

1056
00:58:14,500 --> 00:58:17,100
recruitment methods. 
Used by most medieval States 

1057
00:58:17,100 --> 00:58:21,700
every male between roughly 15 
and 60 is technically available 

1058
00:58:21,700 --> 00:58:24,900
for military service. 
Though, in practice, the Mongols

1059
00:58:24,900 --> 00:58:27,900
are selectively preferring to 
maintain the quality of their 

1060
00:58:27,900 --> 00:58:30,700
forces. 
Rather than simply maximizing 

1061
00:58:30,700 --> 00:58:33,200
numbers. 
You watch a military inspection,

1062
00:58:33,200 --> 00:58:37,400
where young men are tested on 
horsemanship, archery and ends. 

1063
00:58:38,200 --> 00:58:41,400
Those who pass get incorporated 
into units and begin training, 

1064
00:58:41,400 --> 00:58:44,000
that will turn them, into the 
kind of Warriors who terrified, 

1065
00:58:44,000 --> 00:58:47,100
professional armies, those who 
don't pass receive other 

1066
00:58:47,100 --> 00:58:51,300
assignments, support roles, 
Messenger Service or Garrison 

1067
00:58:51,300 --> 00:58:54,900
Duty and less critical 
locations, communication remains

1068
00:58:54,900 --> 00:58:58,100
crucial and the AMS system 
expands to cover the entire 

1069
00:58:58,100 --> 00:59:01,500
Empire, like a nervous system. 
Connecting, brain to limbs you 

1070
00:59:01,500 --> 00:59:04,700
visit a relay station in Central
Asia and its impressive. 

1071
00:59:05,500 --> 00:59:09,200
Stables with 20 horses supplies 
for Riders, simple 

1072
00:59:09,200 --> 00:59:12,700
accommodations for official 
Messengers, on a small Garrison 

1073
00:59:12,700 --> 00:59:14,900
to protect the station and 
enforce. 

1074
00:59:14,900 --> 00:59:17,800
Its privileges. 
The system is expensive to 

1075
00:59:17,800 --> 00:59:22,400
maintain all those horses, all 
that grain, all those guards. 

1076
00:59:23,100 --> 00:59:25,900
But it allows the central 
government to remain informed 

1077
00:59:25,900 --> 00:59:29,200
about conditions in distant 
provinces and to respond to 

1078
00:59:29,200 --> 00:59:32,200
crises faster than any previous 
Empire managed. 

1079
00:59:32,700 --> 00:59:35,800
The cost is born by local 
populations required to maintain

1080
00:59:35,800 --> 00:59:38,200
the stations as a form of tax 
obligation. 

1081
00:59:39,100 --> 00:59:43,000
Villages near stations must 
provide horses, food, and labor,

1082
00:59:43,000 --> 00:59:46,900
it's burdened them, but it also 
means that Mongol officials can 

1083
00:59:46,900 --> 00:59:49,500
travel quickly. 
When needed that Merchants with 

1084
00:59:49,500 --> 00:59:53,200
paiser can move safely and that 
rebellion in one Province can 

1085
00:59:53,200 --> 00:59:56,100
trigger responses from forces, 
several provinces away. 

1086
00:59:56,100 --> 00:59:59,900
Before the rebels can 
consolidate their gains taxation

1087
00:59:59,900 --> 01:00:02,900
is surprisingly diverse, 
reflecting the different 

1088
01:00:02,900 --> 01:00:04,700
economies, the Mongols of 
Concord. 

1089
01:00:05,500 --> 01:00:09,200
In pastoral regions, it's 
primarily an animals every year 

1090
01:00:09,200 --> 01:00:11,800
a certain percentage of your 
herd goes to the Empire. 

1091
01:00:11,800 --> 01:00:16,200
In agricultural areas it's grain
and other crops typically around

1092
01:00:16,200 --> 01:00:20,600
10 to 20% of the Harvest higher.
If you've rebelled and lower, if

1093
01:00:20,600 --> 01:00:23,300
you've been particularly loyal 
in commercial cities, there are 

1094
01:00:23,300 --> 01:00:27,200
taxes on Market transactions, 
customs duties on Goods passing 

1095
01:00:27,200 --> 01:00:30,200
through and Licensing fees for 
certain trades. 

1096
01:00:30,200 --> 01:00:33,900
There's also military service 
with households required to 

1097
01:00:33,900 --> 01:00:36,200
provide Warriors. 
When needed, there's Labor 

1098
01:00:36,200 --> 01:00:39,700
Service for building projects 
roads Bridges fortifications. 

1099
01:00:39,700 --> 01:00:43,600
Palaces, the burden is heavy. 
Certainly heavier than most 

1100
01:00:43,600 --> 01:00:47,000
people bore under previous 
regimes, but it's distributed 

1101
01:00:47,000 --> 01:00:50,300
systemically rather than falling
randomly on what ever 

1102
01:00:50,300 --> 01:00:53,600
communities happen to catch a 
tax collectors attention on a 

1103
01:00:53,600 --> 01:00:55,700
bad day. 
The Mongols proved remarkably 

1104
01:00:55,700 --> 01:00:59,200
good at identifying and 
utilizing Talent regardless of 

1105
01:00:59,200 --> 01:01:02,900
origin, a skilled administrator 
captured during the conquest of 

1106
01:01:02,900 --> 01:01:05,300
Clara's. 
On might find himself running. 

1107
01:01:05,500 --> 01:01:08,500
A province in China. 
His language skills and 

1108
01:01:08,500 --> 01:01:12,200
administrative experience valued
above considerations of 

1109
01:01:12,200 --> 01:01:16,000
ethnicity or past legion's. 
A clever engineer, gets pulled 

1110
01:01:16,000 --> 01:01:18,400
into military service designing,
Siege equipment. 

1111
01:01:19,100 --> 01:01:22,200
A merchant with knowledge of 
distant markets, becomes an 

1112
01:01:22,200 --> 01:01:26,000
advisor on trade policy Chinese 
Scholars, get incorporated into 

1113
01:01:26,000 --> 01:01:29,400
the Mongol bureaucracy bringing 
with them sophisticated 

1114
01:01:29,400 --> 01:01:32,100
record-keeping systems, that 
make Administration more 

1115
01:01:32,100 --> 01:01:35,100
efficient, there's a ruthless 
meritocracy at work. 

1116
01:01:35,100 --> 01:01:38,200
That's occasionally refreshing 
compared to the rigid hereditary

1117
01:01:38,200 --> 01:01:40,000
systems. 
Common in many medieval 

1118
01:01:40,000 --> 01:01:43,400
societies. 
Yes, being from a powerful 

1119
01:01:43,400 --> 01:01:46,500
Mongol, family helps. 
But incompetence will still get 

1120
01:01:46,500 --> 01:01:49,600
you demoted or worse. 
A talented Foreigner. 

1121
01:01:49,600 --> 01:01:52,700
Can rise to positions of genuine
Authority, though. 

1122
01:01:52,700 --> 01:01:55,300
They'll always be watched more 
carefully than ethnic Mongols 

1123
01:01:55,300 --> 01:01:58,300
and always suspected. 
If anything goes wrong, you meet

1124
01:01:58,300 --> 01:02:02,500
a Chinese official named yellow.
Tokai a former Dynasty, 

1125
01:02:02,500 --> 01:02:06,000
bureaucrat who now serves a Khan
as a chief administrator. 

1126
01:02:06,000 --> 01:02:09,900
He's managed to convince the 
Mongols that systemic taxation, 

1127
01:02:09,900 --> 01:02:13,300
generates more Revenue than 
simply looting and destroying 

1128
01:02:13,300 --> 01:02:17,200
conquered territories that a 
functioning economy produces. 

1129
01:02:17,200 --> 01:02:20,800
Well that can be taxed 
repeatedly and the educated 

1130
01:02:20,800 --> 01:02:25,300
administrators, a more valuable 
alive and working than dead his 

1131
01:02:25,300 --> 01:02:28,400
influence as probably saved 
millions of lives by making 

1132
01:02:28,400 --> 01:02:31,800
Conquest economically. 
Rational, rather than purely 

1133
01:02:31,800 --> 01:02:35,100
extractive during Genghis, 
Khan's final years now. 

1134
01:02:35,100 --> 01:02:37,800
And he's aging in the way 
Warriors age when they've spent 

1135
01:02:37,800 --> 01:02:42,900
decades in the saddle, fighting 
campaigns enduring wounds and 

1136
01:02:42,900 --> 01:02:46,500
pushing their bodies past normal
limits, his body carries the 

1137
01:02:46,500 --> 01:02:51,300
accumulated injuries of 
countless Old Wounds that aching

1138
01:02:51,300 --> 01:02:55,300
cold weather joints stiff from 
years of riding and scars. 

1139
01:02:55,300 --> 01:02:58,100
That tell stories, he rarely 
bothers recounting anymore 

1140
01:02:58,100 --> 01:03:00,700
because everyone who matters 
already knows them. 

1141
01:03:00,700 --> 01:03:04,400
He's in his 60s, which is 
genuinely old for this era. 

1142
01:03:04,400 --> 01:03:07,400
Ancient for someone who's lived 
as violently as he has. 

1143
01:03:08,600 --> 01:03:11,300
The campaign Against The 
Westerns year is grinding and 

1144
01:03:11,300 --> 01:03:14,900
exhausting more a punishment 
Expedition than a genuine 

1145
01:03:14,900 --> 01:03:17,400
Conquest. 
They angered him by refusing to 

1146
01:03:17,400 --> 01:03:19,700
provide support for his war 
against quarrelsome. 

1147
01:03:19,700 --> 01:03:23,400
Citing their own military 
commitments as an excuse he 

1148
01:03:23,400 --> 01:03:27,100
hasn't forgotten now years later
he's returned to make sure they 

1149
01:03:27,100 --> 01:03:30,900
understand the consequences of 
defying him to demonstrate that 

1150
01:03:30,900 --> 01:03:34,500
agreements with the Khan and not
suggestions but obligations 

1151
01:03:34,500 --> 01:03:36,500
backed by the full might of his 
army. 

1152
01:03:36,500 --> 01:03:39,600
You watch his army, 
systematically dismantling, the 

1153
01:03:39,600 --> 01:03:43,700
west, and G, State destroying 
cities eliminating leadership 

1154
01:03:43,700 --> 01:03:46,200
and erasing, the kingdom with 
methodical thoroughness. 

1155
01:03:47,000 --> 01:03:50,000
It's not just about Conquest. 
There are dozens of other 

1156
01:03:50,000 --> 01:03:52,400
kingdoms, the Mongols could 
conquer with less effort. 

1157
01:03:53,300 --> 01:03:57,100
This is about sending a message 
to every tributary state, every 

1158
01:03:57,100 --> 01:04:01,800
Ally, and every potential Rebel,
Keep your Oaths or face 

1159
01:04:01,800 --> 01:04:05,400
Annihilation, his health is 
failing, very hides it as well 

1160
01:04:05,400 --> 01:04:08,100
as he can. 
There's a fall from a horse 

1161
01:04:08,100 --> 01:04:10,900
during a hunting trip. 
That seems minor at first but 

1162
01:04:10,900 --> 01:04:13,800
leaves him injured possibly 
bleeding internally. 

1163
01:04:13,800 --> 01:04:18,100
The exact details are murky, 
Mongol sources are deliberately 

1164
01:04:18,100 --> 01:04:21,200
vague about the Khan's 
vulnerabilities but you can see 

1165
01:04:21,200 --> 01:04:25,800
he's not recovering properly. 
Fever comes and goes, he has 

1166
01:04:25,808 --> 01:04:27,800
trouble eating and keeping down 
food. 

1167
01:04:27,800 --> 01:04:32,100
His advisors urged him to rest, 
to return to Mongolia but he 

1168
01:04:32,100 --> 01:04:35,600
insists on the campaign through 
he continues directing 

1169
01:04:35,600 --> 01:04:38,100
operations from a litter. 
When he can't ride any more 

1170
01:04:38,100 --> 01:04:41,700
still making decisions still 
planning the Empire's future 

1171
01:04:41,700 --> 01:04:45,300
even as his own runs, out your 
present during a war council 

1172
01:04:45,300 --> 01:04:48,600
where he discusses strategy for 
campaigns, he won't live to see 

1173
01:04:49,500 --> 01:04:52,400
Conquest that will happen 
decades after his death. 

1174
01:04:52,400 --> 01:04:56,500
His mind remained sharp, even as
his body betrays him, and 

1175
01:04:56,500 --> 01:04:58,700
there's something both 
impressive and sad about 

1176
01:04:58,700 --> 01:05:01,100
watching him refused to 
acknowledge his mortality. 

1177
01:05:02,500 --> 01:05:05,800
The question of succession 
occupies his remaining time and 

1178
01:05:05,800 --> 01:05:07,900
energy. 
His sons are grown men. 

1179
01:05:07,900 --> 01:05:12,000
Now each commanding armies each 
with their own supporters and 

1180
01:05:12,000 --> 01:05:15,500
Ambitions and each capable of 
tearing the Empire apart. 

1181
01:05:15,500 --> 01:05:19,300
In a civil war, if succession 
isn't handled carefully, the 

1182
01:05:19,300 --> 01:05:21,800
traditional Mongol approach 
would be to divide the Empire 

1183
01:05:21,800 --> 01:05:25,100
among the giving each sanitary 
to rule independently. 

1184
01:05:26,200 --> 01:05:30,100
Seen how that fragments power 
creates opportunities for Rivals

1185
01:05:30,100 --> 01:05:33,500
and turns unified strength into 
competing factions. 

1186
01:05:33,500 --> 01:05:37,600
Instead he designates ogre die 
as his primary successor. 

1187
01:05:38,400 --> 01:05:40,800
Someone he thinks has the 
temperament to hold the empire 

1188
01:05:40,800 --> 01:05:44,300
together. 
Not his eldest son, yochi. 

1189
01:05:44,300 --> 01:05:48,200
Whose paternity carries those 
quiet questions from berta's, 

1190
01:05:48,200 --> 01:05:51,000
captivity. 
Not chagatai whose strong, but 

1191
01:05:51,000 --> 01:05:55,300
inflexible too rigid to navigate
the complex politics of ruling a

1192
01:05:55,300 --> 01:05:59,400
multi-ethnic Empire. 
Not tolui, the youngest whose 

1193
01:05:59,400 --> 01:06:02,300
brilliant but two young to 
command the respect of senior 

1194
01:06:02,300 --> 01:06:06,100
commanders ogre day. 
The third son is competent 

1195
01:06:06,100 --> 01:06:08,900
without being threatening and 
diplomatic without being weak. 

1196
01:06:09,600 --> 01:06:11,900
Someone his brothers might 
accept because he doesn't 

1197
01:06:11,900 --> 01:06:13,700
Inspire the same jealousy or 
resentment. 

1198
01:06:15,000 --> 01:06:18,200
There are long conversations 
during these final weeks, you 

1199
01:06:18,200 --> 01:06:21,300
watch him talking with his son's
laying out his vision for 

1200
01:06:21,300 --> 01:06:24,400
continued expansion. 
Warning them about specific 

1201
01:06:24,400 --> 01:06:28,200
threats and sharing a 
accumulated wisdom about Warfare

1202
01:06:28,200 --> 01:06:30,900
governance and the management of
their conquered territories. 

1203
01:06:30,900 --> 01:06:35,200
He tells them that their 
strength lies in unity that 

1204
01:06:35,200 --> 01:06:38,200
divided, they'll be vulnerable 
to the civilizations, they've 

1205
01:06:38,200 --> 01:06:41,400
subjugated and that maintaining 
the Empire will require 

1206
01:06:41,400 --> 01:06:43,500
cooperation even when its 
difficult. 

1207
01:06:44,600 --> 01:06:47,800
Whether they listen is another 
question, you can see the 

1208
01:06:47,800 --> 01:06:50,900
tensions already present 
chagatai and yochi. 

1209
01:06:50,900 --> 01:06:55,200
Barely speaking to each other 
old grudges festering, each son,

1210
01:06:55,200 --> 01:06:59,300
calculating his own position 
making plans that may or may not

1211
01:06:59,300 --> 01:07:01,700
include supporting his 
designated successor. 

1212
01:07:01,700 --> 01:07:06,200
Genghis Khan sees it too, you 
think and it worries him but 

1213
01:07:06,200 --> 01:07:09,000
there's only so much he can 
control from Beyond the Grave. 

1214
01:07:09,700 --> 01:07:13,900
His death in 1227, is kept 
secret initially following his 

1215
01:07:13,900 --> 01:07:17,100
explicit instructions. 
The Army needs to complete the 

1216
01:07:17,100 --> 01:07:20,500
campaign against the west and 
sea and announcing the Khan's, 

1217
01:07:20,500 --> 01:07:22,900
death might encourage Rebellion 
or embolden enemies. 

1218
01:07:22,900 --> 01:07:26,500
So they carry his body back 
toward Mongolia in secret, 

1219
01:07:26,500 --> 01:07:30,000
maintaining the fiction that he 
still alive and directing 

1220
01:07:30,000 --> 01:07:33,300
operations. 
Messengers continue riding in 

1221
01:07:33,300 --> 01:07:36,900
and out of Camp as if carrying 
his orders guards. 

1222
01:07:36,900 --> 01:07:40,400
Maintain watch over his tent as 
if he's resting inside the 

1223
01:07:40,400 --> 01:07:43,300
Western sheer ruler and his 
family allured into a meeting 

1224
01:07:43,300 --> 01:07:46,900
with Mongol commanders where 
they're executed their Kingdom 

1225
01:07:46,900 --> 01:07:49,500
erased. 
So thoroughly that its language 

1226
01:07:49,500 --> 01:07:51,900
and culture largely disappear 
from history. 

1227
01:07:51,900 --> 01:07:55,000
The funeral procession 
supposedly kills anyone, who 

1228
01:07:55,000 --> 01:07:58,200
sees it maintaining secrecy 
about the burial location 

1229
01:07:58,200 --> 01:08:01,400
whether this is true or 
propaganda is hard to say. 

1230
01:08:01,400 --> 01:08:05,200
Certainly some people along the 
Route die, but whether through 

1231
01:08:05,200 --> 01:08:09,400
systematic execution or normal 
mortality inflated by Legend is 

1232
01:08:09,400 --> 01:08:12,600
unclear, the burial site itself 
remains unknown. 

1233
01:08:12,600 --> 01:08:15,400
To this day, hidden somewhere in
the mountains of Northern 

1234
01:08:15,400 --> 01:08:18,000
Mongolia, protected by 
isolation. 

1235
01:08:18,000 --> 01:08:21,300
And deliberate. 
Obscurity, the Empire he leaves 

1236
01:08:21,300 --> 01:08:24,200
behind is the largest contiguous
land Empire. 

1237
01:08:24,200 --> 01:08:27,300
The world has ever seen 
stretching from the Pacific 

1238
01:08:27,300 --> 01:08:32,100
Ocean to the Caspian Sea from 
the Frozen forests of Barrier to

1239
01:08:32,108 --> 01:08:35,100
the borders of India. 
It's connected by those relay 

1240
01:08:35,100 --> 01:08:39,600
stations secured by military. 
Garrisons administered by a 

1241
01:08:39,600 --> 01:08:43,000
bureaucracy, that blends Mongol 
oversight with local expertise 

1242
01:08:43,000 --> 01:08:47,399
and enriched by trade, that 
flows more freely than it has in

1243
01:08:47,399 --> 01:08:49,800
centuries. 
The population under Mongol 

1244
01:08:49,800 --> 01:08:53,300
control numbers in the tens of 
millions encompassing, dozens of

1245
01:08:53,308 --> 01:08:56,300
ethnic groups, multiple 
religions and countless 

1246
01:08:56,300 --> 01:08:58,399
cultures. 
Now, unified under a single 

1247
01:08:58,399 --> 01:09:01,500
political system, his 
descendants will expand it. 

1248
01:09:01,500 --> 01:09:04,899
Further pushing the boundaries 
even beyond what he achieved 

1249
01:09:04,899 --> 01:09:09,700
OGD, will invade Eastern Europe,
sending armies onto Khan, that 

1250
01:09:09,700 --> 01:09:12,700
will terrify kingdoms from 
Poland, to Hungary, crushing 

1251
01:09:12,700 --> 01:09:16,399
European armies at Lake, Nika 
and mohi and advancing so far, 

1252
01:09:16,399 --> 01:09:20,399
west that Scouts reportedly 
reached the Adriatic Sea, only 

1253
01:09:20,399 --> 01:09:25,100
ugga days, death in 1200 to 41 
pulls the back as commanders 

1254
01:09:25,100 --> 01:09:27,800
returned to Mongolia for the 
coral tie to choose his 

1255
01:09:27,800 --> 01:09:30,000
successor. 
Minka will continue the 

1256
01:09:30,000 --> 01:09:33,000
expansion of to secure His own 
succession through political 

1257
01:09:33,000 --> 01:09:36,399
maneuvering, and some Bloodshed 
Kublai will conquer the rest of 

1258
01:09:36,399 --> 01:09:40,300
China overthrowing the Song 
Dynasty and establishing the UN 

1259
01:09:40,300 --> 01:09:42,600
in Estee. 
Becoming emperor of the Middle 

1260
01:09:42,600 --> 01:09:44,800
Kingdom. 
The development that would have 

1261
01:09:44,800 --> 01:09:47,800
seemed impossible when his 
grandfather was a hungry, 

1262
01:09:47,800 --> 01:09:50,200
orphaned stealing fish from 
streams. 

1263
01:09:50,200 --> 01:09:54,700
The Mongol, domains will 
eventually Encompass 25% of the 

1264
01:09:54,700 --> 01:09:58,200
world's land area directly 
ruling or collecting tribute 

1265
01:09:58,200 --> 01:10:01,300
from region, stretching from 
Korea to Hungary, and from 

1266
01:10:01,300 --> 01:10:05,000
Vietnam to Russia, but you're 
interested in the quieter 

1267
01:10:05,000 --> 01:10:08,600
legacies, the changes that 
persist Beyond military conquest

1268
01:10:08,600 --> 01:10:12,500
and political control, the 
religious tolerance imperfect 

1269
01:10:12,500 --> 01:10:15,600
but genuine that allows 
different faiths to coexist 

1270
01:10:15,600 --> 01:10:18,200
within the Empire. 
It's not quite the modern 

1271
01:10:18,200 --> 01:10:20,900
concept of religious freedom. 
There are definitely High 

1272
01:10:20,900 --> 01:10:24,100
Rockies and definitely 
expectations about Behavior but 

1273
01:10:24,100 --> 01:10:28,100
it's remarkably pluralistic for 
the medieval period, a Buddhist 

1274
01:10:28,100 --> 01:10:30,900
can trade with a Muslim. 
A Christian can serve alongside 

1275
01:10:30,900 --> 01:10:34,400
a shaman in the Army and 
religious disputes are settled 

1276
01:10:34,400 --> 01:10:38,400
by Civil Authorities rather than
through religious Warfare, the 

1277
01:10:38,400 --> 01:10:41,500
meritocratic principles that let
talented people rise. 

1278
01:10:41,600 --> 01:10:45,500
Regardless of birth leave marks 
on subsequent Society is the 

1279
01:10:45,500 --> 01:10:48,500
idea that competence should 
determine position that 

1280
01:10:48,500 --> 01:10:51,500
hereditary nobility isn't 
automatically entitled to 

1281
01:10:51,500 --> 01:10:54,600
leadership, and that Talent 
should be identified and 

1282
01:10:54,600 --> 01:10:57,300
promoted. 
These Concepts influence 

1283
01:10:57,300 --> 01:11:01,700
political thinking in ways that 
Outlast Mongol rule, when the 

1284
01:11:01,700 --> 01:11:05,500
Empire fragments and eventually 
disappears replaced by various 

1285
01:11:05,500 --> 01:11:09,800
successor States, some of these 
principles persist embedded in 

1286
01:11:09,800 --> 01:11:13,000
administrative practices and 
cultural expectations. 

1287
01:11:13,000 --> 01:11:17,000
The trade networks that connect 
East and West remain active 

1288
01:11:17,000 --> 01:11:19,100
long. 
After Mongol political Unity 

1289
01:11:19,100 --> 01:11:23,800
dissolves allowing exchange of 
goods ideas and Technologies. 

1290
01:11:23,800 --> 01:11:28,200
The Silk Road reaches its peak 
under Mongol protection and even

1291
01:11:28,200 --> 01:11:31,300
as the Empire fragments The 
Roots remain, more accessible 

1292
01:11:31,300 --> 01:11:33,100
than they were before the 
conquests. 

1293
01:11:33,700 --> 01:11:37,100
Merchants continued traveling 
path that Mongol Army secured 

1294
01:11:37,100 --> 01:11:41,400
carrying not just physical Goods
but also knowledge printing 

1295
01:11:41,400 --> 01:11:46,100
techniques, gunpowder formulas, 
mathematical Concepts, and 

1296
01:11:46,100 --> 01:11:49,500
Artistic Styles. 
There's all the darker Legacy 

1297
01:11:49,500 --> 01:11:51,000
that can't be ignored or 
minimized. 

1298
01:11:52,100 --> 01:11:55,400
It is destroyed. 
The populations killed the 

1299
01:11:55,400 --> 01:11:58,400
cultures erased. 
The Mongol conquest killed 

1300
01:11:58,400 --> 01:12:02,700
Millions by some estimates. 
Perhaps 40 million people, or 

1301
01:12:02,700 --> 01:12:05,100
more though. 
Exact numbers are impossible to 

1302
01:12:05,100 --> 01:12:07,500
verify and hotly debated by 
historians. 

1303
01:12:08,300 --> 01:12:11,000
Entire cities were annihilated. 
So completely that 

1304
01:12:11,000 --> 01:12:13,600
archaeologists, still find the 
destruction layers in their 

1305
01:12:13,600 --> 01:12:16,600
ruins, thick bands of Ash and 
Bone marking. 

1306
01:12:16,600 --> 01:12:20,200
The moment, the Mongols arrived,
the kwara and Empire essentially

1307
01:12:20,200 --> 01:12:24,200
ceased to exist, its major 
cities reduced to Rubble his 

1308
01:12:24,200 --> 01:12:27,500
population devastated. 
The irrigation systems in 

1309
01:12:27,500 --> 01:12:31,400
Central Asia and Persia suffered
damage that took centuries to 

1310
01:12:31,400 --> 01:12:34,600
repair turning productive 
agricultural land into 

1311
01:12:34,600 --> 01:12:38,500
semi-desert Baghdad. 
When it finally Falls to Hulu in

1312
01:12:38,500 --> 01:12:43,500
1258 loses perhaps a million 
inhabitants, its famed. 

1313
01:12:43,500 --> 01:12:46,500
Library is destroyed and 
centuries of Islamic 

1314
01:12:46,500 --> 01:12:49,700
scholarship, a lost forever. 
The Jin Dynasty in northern 

1315
01:12:49,700 --> 01:12:53,400
China fights for decades before 
being destroyed, its territory 

1316
01:12:53,400 --> 01:12:58,100
depopulated, by Warfare famine 
and disease the Song Dynasty 

1317
01:12:58,100 --> 01:13:00,800
holds out longer but eventually 
Falls as well. 

1318
01:13:00,800 --> 01:13:04,500
Its sophisticated culture 
absorbed and transformed by the 

1319
01:13:04,500 --> 01:13:08,200
UN Dynasty Russia fragments into
competing princ. 

1320
01:13:08,200 --> 01:13:11,900
Qualities many paying tribute of
the golden horde for centuries, 

1321
01:13:11,900 --> 01:13:15,000
their political development 
altered by the experience of 

1322
01:13:15,008 --> 01:13:18,200
Mongol domination. 
You notice how The Empire begins

1323
01:13:18,200 --> 01:13:22,300
fragmenting even before it. 
Fully settles centrifugal 

1324
01:13:22,300 --> 01:13:24,900
forces, pulling it apart, 
despite efforts to maintain 

1325
01:13:24,900 --> 01:13:27,300
Unity. 
The various Canadians. 

1326
01:13:27,300 --> 01:13:30,500
Develop their own characters, 
their own priorities, and their 

1327
01:13:30,500 --> 01:13:32,500
own relationships with the 
populations. 

1328
01:13:32,500 --> 01:13:35,800
They rule the golden horde in 
Russia becomes increasingly 

1329
01:13:35,800 --> 01:13:40,100
separate, its khans, converting 
to Islam, adopting personal 

1330
01:13:40,100 --> 01:13:43,200
administrative practices and 
developing their own Court 

1331
01:13:43,200 --> 01:13:46,400
culture. 
The ilkan Peru converts to 

1332
01:13:46,400 --> 01:13:50,100
Islam, becoming essentially a 
Persian Empire ruled by Mongol 

1333
01:13:50,100 --> 01:13:53,900
Elites who gradually assimilate 
into Persian culture, the 

1334
01:13:53,900 --> 01:13:56,900
charcuterie konate in Central, 
Asia maintains nomadic 

1335
01:13:56,900 --> 01:14:01,100
Traditions longer but also 
fragments in turnley splitting 

1336
01:14:01,100 --> 01:14:03,500
between eastern and western 
branches with different 

1337
01:14:03,500 --> 01:14:07,200
priorities and policies. 
The UN dynasty in China, become 

1338
01:14:07,200 --> 01:14:11,200
more Chinese with the generation
with Kublai and his successors, 

1339
01:14:11,200 --> 01:14:15,500
adopting Chinese administrative 
practices Confucian ideology. 

1340
01:14:15,500 --> 01:14:19,100
An imperial ceremonies and their
essentially Chinese Emperors who

1341
01:14:19,100 --> 01:14:22,800
happen to be descended from 
Mongol conquerors the trade 

1342
01:14:22,800 --> 01:14:25,400
networks prove more durable than
political Unity. 

1343
01:14:26,100 --> 01:14:30,000
Even as the various connotes 
drift apart politically pursuing

1344
01:14:30,000 --> 01:14:33,500
independent foreign policies 
sometimes even fighting each 

1345
01:14:33,500 --> 01:14:35,600
other. 
The Silk Road continues 

1346
01:14:35,600 --> 01:14:39,000
functioning at high levels 
Merchants still travel routes 

1347
01:14:39,000 --> 01:14:42,800
that the Mongol conquest secured
carrying goods between regions. 

1348
01:14:42,800 --> 01:14:44,900
That might be politically 
separate, but remain 

1349
01:14:44,900 --> 01:14:48,100
economically. 
Connected ideas flow along these

1350
01:14:48,100 --> 01:14:52,400
paths, gunpowder Technologies 
Westward, eventually 

1351
01:14:52,400 --> 01:14:57,400
revolutionizing European Warfare
Printing technology, expands 

1352
01:14:57,400 --> 01:15:00,300
Beyond China, though, it won't 
reach Europe for another 

1353
01:15:00,300 --> 01:15:02,800
Century. 
Mathematical Concepts 

1354
01:15:02,800 --> 01:15:06,300
cross-cultural, boundaries 
Arabic numerals, become more 

1355
01:15:06,300 --> 01:15:11,900
widely used techniques spread an
astronomical observations, get 

1356
01:15:11,900 --> 01:15:15,600
shared and refined through 
Intercultural contact, you see 

1357
01:15:15,608 --> 01:15:18,800
elements of Mongol law and 
administration being adopted by 

1358
01:15:18,800 --> 01:15:21,800
successor States particularly in
Russia. 

1359
01:15:21,800 --> 01:15:26,200
Where the influence persists 
longest The census techniques, 

1360
01:15:26,200 --> 01:15:30,200
get copied and refined the 
postal system, inspires later, 

1361
01:15:30,200 --> 01:15:33,300
communication networks, 
including those established by 

1362
01:15:33,308 --> 01:15:37,200
Russian and Chinese Empires, the
idea of religious tolerance. 

1363
01:15:37,200 --> 01:15:40,600
However, imperfectly 
implemented, plants seeds that 

1364
01:15:40,600 --> 01:15:43,900
will influence later thinking 
about governance sovereignty and

1365
01:15:43,900 --> 01:15:46,100
the relationship between 
political and religious 

1366
01:15:46,100 --> 01:15:48,500
Authority, the military 
Innovation. 

1367
01:15:48,500 --> 01:15:51,300
Spread as well though they're 
often resisted initially because

1368
01:15:51,300 --> 01:15:53,300
adopting them means 
acknowledging that these 

1369
01:15:53,300 --> 01:15:56,400
Barbarian conquerors understood 
something important about 

1370
01:15:56,400 --> 01:15:59,900
Warfare other armies. 
Eventually study Mongol tactics 

1371
01:15:59,900 --> 01:16:04,100
try to replicate their mobility 
and coordination and adopt 

1372
01:16:04,100 --> 01:16:05,900
elements of their command 
structure. 

1373
01:16:05,900 --> 01:16:09,200
The composite bow design 
influences weapons Development 

1374
01:16:09,200 --> 01:16:12,500
Across Eurasia though. 
It's gradually superseded by 

1375
01:16:12,500 --> 01:16:14,600
crossbows and eventually 
Firearms. 

1376
01:16:14,600 --> 01:16:18,900
The emphasis on Cavalry mobility
and tactical flexibility becomes

1377
01:16:18,900 --> 01:16:22,400
Doctrine in Military Academy is 
that won't exist for centuries, 

1378
01:16:22,400 --> 01:16:24,700
but will Trace some of their 
thinking back to lessons. 

1379
01:16:25,000 --> 01:16:28,300
Learned fighting against or 
alongside Mongol forces, the 

1380
01:16:28,300 --> 01:16:32,000
idea of combined arms Warfare 
coordinating, different types of

1381
01:16:32,000 --> 01:16:35,000
units. 
For maximum effect, owes 

1382
01:16:35,000 --> 01:16:37,600
something to Mongol practice 
though, it gets developed 

1383
01:16:37,600 --> 01:16:39,300
further by later military 
thinkers. 

1384
01:16:39,300 --> 01:16:43,300
You're sitting by a fire. 
Now, not in any specific time or

1385
01:16:43,300 --> 01:16:47,000
place, but in the kind of moment
that existed throughout the 

1386
01:16:47,000 --> 01:16:50,700
Mongol period and continues in 
diminished form to day. 

1387
01:16:51,400 --> 01:16:55,500
After the day's work before 
sleep, when people gather and 

1388
01:16:55,500 --> 01:16:59,700
talk quietly, while Flames died 
down to Embers and the vast Sky 

1389
01:16:59,700 --> 01:17:03,000
Wheels overhead, the 
conversation meanders touching 

1390
01:17:03,000 --> 01:17:06,300
on ordinary things that matter 
more than Empire, someone 

1391
01:17:06,300 --> 01:17:09,300
mentions whether patterns noting
how the clouds have been 

1392
01:17:09,308 --> 01:17:12,600
building differently lately, 
speculating about whether the 

1393
01:17:12,600 --> 01:17:14,200
rains will come early this year 
or late. 

1394
01:17:14,200 --> 01:17:18,700
Someone else mentioned seeing 
unusual bird Behavior Cranes, 

1395
01:17:18,700 --> 01:17:21,300
migrating and formations. 
That seemed wrong for the 

1396
01:17:21,300 --> 01:17:23,700
season, which might mean 
something about coming weather 

1397
01:17:23,700 --> 01:17:27,400
patterns, these observations 
aren't idle chatter their 

1398
01:17:27,400 --> 01:17:30,500
survival information, the 
accumulated knowledge that keeps

1399
01:17:30,500 --> 01:17:33,000
communities alive in 
environments that don't forgive 

1400
01:17:33,000 --> 01:17:35,300
mistakes. 
Someone tells a joke, you don't 

1401
01:17:35,300 --> 01:17:38,400
quite catch, but the laughter 
suggests its funny in the 

1402
01:17:38,400 --> 01:17:41,200
original language. 
Something about a merchant and a

1403
01:17:41,200 --> 01:17:45,000
stubborn camel, the punchline on
wordplay that doesn't translate 

1404
01:17:45,000 --> 01:17:47,400
well, the laughter is genuine 
though. 

1405
01:17:47,400 --> 01:17:50,400
The kind that comes from people 
who spend their days together 

1406
01:17:50,400 --> 01:17:52,900
and have developed their own 
rhythms of humor. 

1407
01:17:52,900 --> 01:17:55,900
Their own internal reference is 
and running jokes. 

1408
01:17:55,900 --> 01:18:00,300
A woman is doing needlework by 
firelight creating patterns in 

1409
01:18:00,300 --> 01:18:03,500
felt that will decorate her gear
transforming. 

1410
01:18:03,500 --> 01:18:07,200
Functional shelter into 
something beautiful a hands move

1411
01:18:07,200 --> 01:18:10,500
with practice Precision needle, 
pulling thread through material,

1412
01:18:10,500 --> 01:18:14,400
creating geometric designs that 
Echo patterns used for 

1413
01:18:14,400 --> 01:18:17,300
Generations. 
Someone asks about the design 

1414
01:18:17,300 --> 01:18:20,200
and She explains. 
It's a variation of a pattern, 

1415
01:18:20,200 --> 01:18:24,100
her grandmother taught her. 
Modified slightly to incorporate

1416
01:18:24,100 --> 01:18:25,600
elements from a different 
tradition. 

1417
01:18:25,600 --> 01:18:28,900
She learned from a neighbor who 
married in from another region. 

1418
01:18:28,900 --> 01:18:32,800
It's a small example of cultural
synthesis happening at the most 

1419
01:18:32,800 --> 01:18:35,500
basic level. 
Children sleep nearby. 

1420
01:18:35,500 --> 01:18:39,300
Bundled in first, despite the 
season being relatively warm 

1421
01:18:39,300 --> 01:18:41,900
because desert Knights get cold 
even in summer. 

1422
01:18:41,900 --> 01:18:46,300
They make the small sounds of 
Dreams, soft, murmurs occasional

1423
01:18:46,300 --> 01:18:48,700
movements and the peaceful 
breathing of the deeply asleep. 

1424
01:18:48,700 --> 01:18:51,700
You think about how each of them
carries forward, the knowledge 

1425
01:18:51,700 --> 01:18:54,300
of their culture learning 
through, observation, and 

1426
01:18:54,300 --> 01:18:59,200
participation, how to ride how 
to hunt, how to survive in this 

1427
01:18:59,200 --> 01:19:02,400
landscape, and how to maintain 
the intricate web of 

1428
01:19:02,400 --> 01:19:05,800
relationships and obligations 
that hold Society together. 

1429
01:19:05,800 --> 01:19:09,500
They'll grow up in a world 
shaped by the Empire, perhaps 

1430
01:19:09,500 --> 01:19:11,600
their living during its height, 
perhaps during its 

1431
01:19:11,600 --> 01:19:14,500
fragmentation. 
Perhaps after its dissolved into

1432
01:19:14,500 --> 01:19:18,400
such a state's, their daily 
lives will still Center on herds

1433
01:19:18,400 --> 01:19:22,500
and horses, whether and grass 
and the Practical demands of 

1434
01:19:22,500 --> 01:19:25,600
nomadic pastoralism. 
That persist regardless of 

1435
01:19:25,600 --> 01:19:29,100
political structures the skills,
they learn and teach their own 

1436
01:19:29,100 --> 01:19:32,200
children will be variations on 
skills practice for Millennial 

1437
01:19:32,200 --> 01:19:35,300
on these grasslands, the Dollars
overhead are doing. 

1438
01:19:35,300 --> 01:19:39,200
What stars have always done 
Wheeling across the sky in 

1439
01:19:39,200 --> 01:19:41,700
patterns, that Travelers and 
shamans read for meaning and 

1440
01:19:41,700 --> 01:19:44,200
navigation, the fire. 
Settles lower. 

1441
01:19:45,000 --> 01:19:47,300
Sparks drifting up towards Those
Distant lights. 

1442
01:19:47,300 --> 01:19:51,600
And someone adds another piece 
of fuel Argyl dried wood 

1443
01:19:51,600 --> 01:19:54,900
whatever's available. 
Keeping the warmth going a 

1444
01:19:54,900 --> 01:19:57,100
little longer. 
The action is automatic 

1445
01:19:57,100 --> 01:20:00,900
performed without thought. 
Part of the rhythm of evening 

1446
01:20:00,900 --> 01:20:04,200
that everyone knows. 
There's a Comfort Inn routines 

1447
01:20:04,200 --> 01:20:07,900
that persist regardless of 
politics or Empires The Animals,

1448
01:20:07,900 --> 01:20:10,000
still need 10.00 checking on 
horses. 

1449
01:20:10,000 --> 01:20:13,900
That might have wandered during 
the day ensure safely corralled 

1450
01:20:13,900 --> 01:20:16,800
against predators and making 
sure camels are properly 

1451
01:20:16,800 --> 01:20:19,200
hobbled. 
The season, still cycle through 

1452
01:20:19,200 --> 01:20:22,000
their changes, bringing their 
own demands and opportunities. 

1453
01:20:22,000 --> 01:20:25,300
The Grass Grows, according to 
patterns of rain, and 

1454
01:20:25,300 --> 01:20:29,300
temperature and concerned with 
human Affairs, the wind blows 

1455
01:20:29,300 --> 01:20:32,400
across the steppe in different 
to who claims sovereignty over 

1456
01:20:32,400 --> 01:20:35,500
the land at crosses, you think 
about how history gets written 

1457
01:20:35,500 --> 01:20:39,700
by the dramatic moments battles,
the conquests the rise and fall 

1458
01:20:39,700 --> 01:20:42,800
of Empires and the decisions of 
Khan's and Kings. 

1459
01:20:42,800 --> 01:20:46,300
But most of Life happens in the 
space is between those moments 

1460
01:20:46,300 --> 01:20:49,800
in the ordinary work of feeding 
families and maintaining 

1461
01:20:49,800 --> 01:20:54,000
equipment and teaching children 
and telling stories around fires

1462
01:20:54,000 --> 01:20:58,200
the Mongol Empire conquered half
the world but most Mongols spent

1463
01:20:58,200 --> 01:21:00,600
most of their time doing the 
same things, their ancestors as 

1464
01:21:00,600 --> 01:21:04,600
a done for Generations. 
Managing herds moving with 

1465
01:21:04,600 --> 01:21:06,900
seasons and surviving in a 
landscape. 

1466
01:21:06,900 --> 01:21:10,200
That didn't forgive mistakes. 
The conversation by the fire 

1467
01:21:10,200 --> 01:21:12,800
continues voices, low and 
comfortable. 

1468
01:21:12,800 --> 01:21:16,600
Discussing tomorrow's plans, 
sharing observations about the 

1469
01:21:16,600 --> 01:21:20,300
condition of various animals and
debating the best route to the 

1470
01:21:20,300 --> 01:21:23,000
next grazing area. 
Someone mentions that the 

1471
01:21:23,000 --> 01:21:26,000
northern pastures should be 
recovering nicely that. 

1472
01:21:26,000 --> 01:21:28,800
The spring growth was good and 
that they've had enough time to 

1473
01:21:28,800 --> 01:21:31,200
rest. 
Someone else counters that the 

1474
01:21:31,200 --> 01:21:34,400
southern route might be better 
to despite the longer distance 

1475
01:21:34,400 --> 01:21:37,700
because there are better water 
sources and less risk of 

1476
01:21:37,700 --> 01:21:39,500
encountering. 
A rival group that's been 

1477
01:21:39,500 --> 01:21:42,200
aggressive lately. 
It's the kind of discussion that

1478
01:21:42,200 --> 01:21:45,900
doesn't need resolution tonight.
That serves more to maintain 

1479
01:21:45,900 --> 01:21:48,200
connection than to reach 
conclusions. 

1480
01:21:48,200 --> 01:21:51,900
Everyone knows that actual 
decisions will get made Tomorrow

1481
01:21:51,900 --> 01:21:55,800
based on whether animal 
condition and a dozen factors 

1482
01:21:55,800 --> 01:21:59,100
that can only be assessed. 
When the time comes to move the 

1483
01:21:59,100 --> 01:22:03,700
discussion is partly planning, 
partly social ritual and partly 

1484
01:22:03,700 --> 01:22:06,100
just the pleasure of talking 
with people, you know, and 

1485
01:22:06,100 --> 01:22:09,700
trust, someone begins singing a 
traditional song that predates 

1486
01:22:09,700 --> 01:22:12,700
the Empire by centuries and that
will probably survive. 

1487
01:22:12,700 --> 01:22:17,200
Whatever comes after The Melody 
is simple built to be remembered

1488
01:22:17,200 --> 01:22:20,700
and designed to carry across 
distances when heard as a 

1489
01:22:20,700 --> 01:22:23,700
scattered across the grassland 
and want to hear human voices. 

1490
01:22:23,700 --> 01:22:27,200
It's a song about horses, 
naturally, praising the 

1491
01:22:27,200 --> 01:22:30,900
qualities of a particularly fine
mayor using metaphors, that 

1492
01:22:30,900 --> 01:22:34,300
compared her to natural 
phenomenon, Swift as wind strong

1493
01:22:34,300 --> 01:22:37,600
as mountains. 
Beautiful as Dawn light on water

1494
01:22:37,600 --> 01:22:40,500
others. 
Join in harmonizing, in ways 

1495
01:22:40,500 --> 01:22:41,800
that suggest they've sung 
together. 

1496
01:22:41,800 --> 01:22:45,400
Many times before. 
The harmonies are complex built 

1497
01:22:45,400 --> 01:22:48,400
on intervals, that sound unusual
to ears trained on different 

1498
01:22:48,400 --> 01:22:51,100
musical Traditions but a 
Perfectly Natural here. 

1499
01:22:51,100 --> 01:22:54,000
The song Cycles. 
Through several verses. 

1500
01:22:54,000 --> 01:22:57,600
Each describing different 
qualities of the legendary horse

1501
01:22:57,600 --> 01:23:00,500
before ending on a note that 
seems to hang in the air 

1502
01:23:00,500 --> 01:23:04,800
sustained until breath runs out.
Then Fading Into the Night. 

1503
01:23:04,800 --> 01:23:09,000
You're feeling sleep pulling at 
you the combination of warmth 

1504
01:23:09,000 --> 01:23:12,600
and darkness and the hypnotic 
quality of firelight and voices 

1505
01:23:12,600 --> 01:23:16,300
making your eyelids heavy, your 
body is tired in the good way 

1506
01:23:16,300 --> 01:23:19,800
that comes from physical work 
from a day spent riding or 

1507
01:23:19,800 --> 01:23:22,100
walking or accomplishing 
something tangible. 

1508
01:23:22,900 --> 01:23:26,000
A satisfaction in that kind of 
tiredness, the knowledge that 

1509
01:23:26,000 --> 01:23:28,500
you've earned your rest that 
your body has done. 

1510
01:23:28,500 --> 01:23:31,800
What is designed to do outside 
the circle of firelight the 

1511
01:23:31,800 --> 01:23:33,500
steps stretches away Into 
Darkness. 

1512
01:23:33,500 --> 01:23:37,100
Vast and in different and 
somehow comforting in its 

1513
01:23:37,100 --> 01:23:41,300
constantly you can hear animals.
Move moving the soft sounds of 

1514
01:23:41,300 --> 01:23:45,500
horse is Shifting position sheep
settling in for the night and 

1515
01:23:45,500 --> 01:23:47,900
the occasional Cry of some 
nocturnal predator in the 

1516
01:23:47,900 --> 01:23:51,300
distance. 
He sounds a familiar expected 

1517
01:23:51,300 --> 01:23:53,900
and part of the auditory 
landscape that tells you 

1518
01:23:53,900 --> 01:23:57,200
everything is as it should be. 
The fire burns lower. 

1519
01:23:58,000 --> 01:24:01,800
Flames reducing to coals that 
glow orange and red pulsing 

1520
01:24:01,800 --> 01:24:05,500
slightly as air moves across 
them, the conversation fragments

1521
01:24:05,500 --> 01:24:07,800
into silence. 
People running out of things to 

1522
01:24:07,800 --> 01:24:11,500
say or simply run out of energy.
They begin settling into 

1523
01:24:11,500 --> 01:24:14,800
sleeping positions, wrapping 
themselves in Furs, and felt 

1524
01:24:14,800 --> 01:24:17,500
finding the familiar comfort of 
ground. 

1525
01:24:17,500 --> 01:24:19,800
That's been their bed for weeks 
or months. 

1526
01:24:19,800 --> 01:24:24,300
Some people pray quietly before 
sleep murmuring words to the 

1527
01:24:24,308 --> 01:24:28,800
Eternal Blue Sky, making 
offerings electing spirits and 

1528
01:24:28,808 --> 01:24:30,900
forces that inhabit this 
landscape. 

1529
01:24:30,900 --> 01:24:33,800
Others simply close their eyes, 
too. 

1530
01:24:33,800 --> 01:24:36,700
Tired for ritual, confident that
their relationship with the 

1531
01:24:36,700 --> 01:24:40,300
Divine doesn't require nightly 
maintenance, the camp develops, 

1532
01:24:40,300 --> 01:24:42,600
that particular quality of 
collective rest. 

1533
01:24:42,600 --> 01:24:45,900
When most people are asleep. 
But a few remain, partially 

1534
01:24:45,900 --> 01:24:49,600
aware maintaining a low-level 
vigilance that has become second

1535
01:24:49,600 --> 01:24:52,500
nature. 
The wind picks up slightly and 

1536
01:24:52,500 --> 01:24:55,500
the felt walls of the jerk. 
But hold doing what they've been

1537
01:24:55,500 --> 01:24:59,500
designed to do for centuries. 
The Sound is actually comforting

1538
01:24:59,500 --> 01:25:03,600
a reminder that your sheltered 
protected from the elements by 

1539
01:25:03,600 --> 01:25:06,800
materials and techniques, 
refined through generations of 

1540
01:25:06,800 --> 01:25:10,700
experience outside, the wind 
moves across the grassland 

1541
01:25:10,700 --> 01:25:14,200
bending vegetation, carrying 
with it, the smells of night, 

1542
01:25:14,200 --> 01:25:18,700
cooler, air moisture and the 
complex organic sense of a 

1543
01:25:18,700 --> 01:25:22,100
living landscape. 
Close your eyes and the last 

1544
01:25:22,100 --> 01:25:24,200
thing you're aware of is the 
sound of horses. 

1545
01:25:24,200 --> 01:25:27,300
Moving outside. 
Their presence are a reminder. 

1546
01:25:27,308 --> 01:25:31,300
That tomorrow will begin with 
animals to tend distances to 

1547
01:25:31,300 --> 01:25:33,800
cover. 
And the endless practical work 

1548
01:25:33,800 --> 01:25:36,800
of staying alive. 
In a beautiful demanding 

1549
01:25:36,800 --> 01:25:39,700
landscape that shaped an Empire 
and will Outlast it. 

1550
01:25:39,700 --> 01:25:42,400
The horses. 
Represent wealth, and Mobility, 

1551
01:25:42,400 --> 01:25:45,300
survival, and status and 
connection. 

1552
01:25:45,300 --> 01:25:48,100
To Traditions that stretch back 
Beyond memory. 

1553
01:25:48,100 --> 01:25:50,300
Sleep comes easily under the 
vast. 

1554
01:25:50,300 --> 01:25:54,500
Mongolian Sky, Consciousness, 
fading as your body, relaxes 

1555
01:25:54,500 --> 01:25:56,600
into rest. 
It's earned through the days, 

1556
01:25:56,600 --> 01:26:00,600
exertion your dreams. 
When they come a fragmentary and

1557
01:26:00,600 --> 01:26:06,100
disconnected images of Horizons,
the sensation of movement faces 

1558
01:26:06,100 --> 01:26:08,800
around the fire. 
And the particular quality of 

1559
01:26:08,808 --> 01:26:12,900
light at dawn when Frost catches
early Sun and transforms 

1560
01:26:12,900 --> 01:26:16,800
ordinary grassland in to 
something magical, The fire 

1561
01:26:16,808 --> 01:26:20,000
Fades to Embers, then, ashes, 
and the camp. 

1562
01:26:20,000 --> 01:26:23,400
Settles into the deepest part of
night that quiet. 

1563
01:26:23,400 --> 01:26:26,200
Period between midnight and 
Dawn, when even the most 

1564
01:26:26,200 --> 01:26:30,300
Vigilant Guardians, struggle to 
stay alert, the Stars continue 

1565
01:26:30,300 --> 01:26:35,100
their slow rotation indifferent 
and eternal bearing witness to 

1566
01:26:35,100 --> 01:26:37,100
yet. 
Another days ending on the step,

1567
01:26:37,100 --> 01:26:40,400
another cycle of Life, 
continuing as it has, for 

1568
01:26:40,400 --> 01:26:43,700
Millennia, as it will, for 
millennium more long, after 

1569
01:26:43,700 --> 01:26:46,700
empires of dissolved, into 
Legend and memory. 

1570
01:26:46,700 --> 01:26:50,800
The Grass, Grows over the rooms 
of Conquest patient and 

1571
01:26:50,800 --> 01:26:54,900
persistent reclaiming land, that
briefly saw different purposes, 

1572
01:26:54,900 --> 01:26:58,900
the wind continues. 
Its ancient work, shaping 

1573
01:26:58,900 --> 01:27:02,400
landscape carrying seeds and 
eroding mountains. 

1574
01:27:02,400 --> 01:27:05,800
One grain at a time, the sky 
stretches overhead. 

1575
01:27:05,800 --> 01:27:08,100
That particular blue. 
That becomes visible. 

1576
01:27:08,100 --> 01:27:11,700
Only as Dawn approaches 
signaling, that soon, another 

1577
01:27:11,700 --> 01:27:14,600
day will begin bringing with it,
new challenges, and 

1578
01:27:14,600 --> 01:27:18,500
opportunities, new moments. 
Of beauty and hardship and new 

1579
01:27:18,500 --> 01:27:21,800
additions to the endless. 
Human story of surviving 

1580
01:27:21,800 --> 01:27:25,000
thriving and finding meaning in 
the midst of vast in different 

1581
01:27:25,000 --> 01:27:28,300
and you sleep peacefully beneath
that Eternal Sky. 

1582
01:27:28,300 --> 01:27:33,400
Part of a story larger than any 
one person, anyone Empire, or 

1583
01:27:33,400 --> 01:27:36,500
anyone moment in the long sweep 
of time across these endless, 

1584
01:27:36,500 --> 01:27:43,400
grasslands You're sitting 
outside a cave entrance in what 

1585
01:27:43,400 --> 01:27:47,500
will one day be called France? 
But that name won't exist for 

1586
01:27:47,500 --> 01:27:52,400
another 30,000 years. 
The year is approximately 35,000

1587
01:27:52,400 --> 01:27:56,200
BCE and you've just finished a 
meal of roasted ibex. 

1588
01:27:57,000 --> 01:28:00,900
Fire crackles beside. 
You sending occasional Sparks 

1589
01:28:00,900 --> 01:28:04,300
upward into the darkness. 
And as your eyes follow, those 

1590
01:28:04,300 --> 01:28:07,700
brief orange Embers. 
They continue traveling and they

1591
01:28:07,700 --> 01:28:09,800
meet something far more 
permanent. 

1592
01:28:10,700 --> 01:28:14,700
Stars not just a handful of 
stars, but thousands upon 

1593
01:28:14,700 --> 01:28:19,100
thousands of the sky in a 
brilliant that would make any 

1594
01:28:19,100 --> 01:28:21,600
modern city dweller weak with 
disbelief. 

1595
01:28:22,600 --> 01:28:26,800
There's no light pollution here,
no glow of distant towns or 

1596
01:28:26,800 --> 01:28:30,100
passing cars. 
The Milky Way stretches overhead

1597
01:28:30,100 --> 01:28:32,900
like a river of cream Porter 
cross Black Stone. 

1598
01:28:32,900 --> 01:28:35,400
So bright, you could almost read
by it. 

1599
01:28:35,400 --> 01:28:39,600
If reading was something new, 
how to do But you don't need 

1600
01:28:39,600 --> 01:28:43,400
reading your mind is already 
doing something far, more 

1601
01:28:43,400 --> 01:28:46,500
fundamental. 
It's finding patterns. 

1602
01:28:47,600 --> 01:28:53,100
This isn't a conscious decision.
Your brain like every human 

1603
01:28:53,100 --> 01:28:56,400
brain that will follow yours 
through the Millennia is a 

1604
01:28:56,400 --> 01:29:00,000
pattern recognition machine. 
It's what keeps you alive. 

1605
01:29:01,100 --> 01:29:05,100
That rustle in the grass might 
be wind or it might be a cave, 

1606
01:29:05,100 --> 01:29:08,000
lion. 
That particular arrangement of 

1607
01:29:08,000 --> 01:29:10,800
broken branches. 
Might mean another human past 

1608
01:29:10,800 --> 01:29:13,000
this way, or it might mean 
nothing. 

1609
01:29:13,000 --> 01:29:16,700
At all your survival. 
Depends on sorting signal from 

1610
01:29:16,700 --> 01:29:19,700
noise and you've gotten 
remarkably good at it. 

1611
01:29:20,600 --> 01:29:23,400
So when you look at the stars, 
your brain does what it does 

1612
01:29:23,400 --> 01:29:27,400
best, it connects dots that 
cluster over there looks 

1613
01:29:27,400 --> 01:29:29,800
somewhat like the Ibex you 
hunted earlier. 

1614
01:29:29,800 --> 01:29:32,900
See how those stars form the 
curve of horns. 

1615
01:29:33,600 --> 01:29:35,900
And that group to the east 
resembles, the bear. 

1616
01:29:35,900 --> 01:29:39,500
You saw last spring though, 
you'd never get close enough to 

1617
01:29:39,500 --> 01:29:43,100
one, to confirm the details. 
You don't have names for these 

1618
01:29:43,100 --> 01:29:47,000
patterns yet at least not names.
That will survive but you 

1619
01:29:47,000 --> 01:29:49,800
recognize them night after 
night. 

1620
01:29:49,800 --> 01:29:53,100
They're there in the same 
positions, relative to each 

1621
01:29:53,100 --> 01:29:55,800
other. 
This is remarkable actually. 

1622
01:29:55,800 --> 01:29:59,000
Almost everything else in your 
world changes. 

1623
01:29:59,800 --> 01:30:04,800
The seasons shift animals 
migrate, Rivers, flood and 

1624
01:30:04,800 --> 01:30:10,100
received trees grow and fall. 
Even the moon transforms its 

1625
01:30:10,100 --> 01:30:14,200
face across each month. 
Swelling from a sliver to a 

1626
01:30:14,200 --> 01:30:18,500
bright Circle and back again. 
But these Stars these particular

1627
01:30:18,500 --> 01:30:22,500
Arrangements, they are constant.
Or mostly constant. 

1628
01:30:22,500 --> 01:30:25,900
Anyway, you've noticed they do 
move across the sky. 

1629
01:30:25,900 --> 01:30:30,000
Each night Wheeling from east to
west, but they maintain their 

1630
01:30:30,000 --> 01:30:34,800
relationships to each other. 
The Ibex Stars, stay Ibex shaped

1631
01:30:34,800 --> 01:30:39,900
the Bears remain bare like, you 
don't know it yet, but you've 

1632
01:30:39,900 --> 01:30:42,800
just made one of the most 
important discoveries in human 

1633
01:30:42,800 --> 01:30:45,900
history. 
You found something reliable in 

1634
01:30:45,900 --> 01:30:49,800
an unreliable world over the 
following nights and months. 

1635
01:30:49,800 --> 01:30:53,600
You notice more. 
Those same star patterns appear 

1636
01:30:53,600 --> 01:30:57,000
in the East each evening and 
travel Westwood oftenly 

1637
01:30:57,000 --> 01:30:59,100
disappearing, below the Western 
Horizon. 

1638
01:30:59,100 --> 01:31:04,100
If you stay awake, long enough 
and sometimes you do whether by 

1639
01:31:04,100 --> 01:31:07,400
choice or because something has 
spooked the group and everyone's

1640
01:31:07,400 --> 01:31:10,800
remaining alert. 
You see new patterns rise in the

1641
01:31:10,808 --> 01:31:14,700
east to replace them. 
It's like watching a very slow 

1642
01:31:14,700 --> 01:31:18,200
parade except this parade 
repeats itself with 

1643
01:31:18,200 --> 01:31:21,500
extraordinary precision You 
begin to anticipate? 

1644
01:31:22,500 --> 01:31:25,800
You know that when certain stars
appear, just above the Eastern 

1645
01:31:25,800 --> 01:31:28,600
Horizon at dusk, the weather 
will soon. 

1646
01:31:28,600 --> 01:31:31,500
Turn colder. 
You've seen this correlation 

1647
01:31:31,500 --> 01:31:34,300
enough times that it's no longer
a coincidence. 

1648
01:31:35,100 --> 01:31:38,700
When other stars dominate the 
night sky, the herds will be 

1649
01:31:38,700 --> 01:31:41,700
moving through the valley and 
hunting will be good. 

1650
01:31:42,600 --> 01:31:47,000
This knowledge gets shared 
around fires under those same 

1651
01:31:47,000 --> 01:31:49,800
Stars, you and others discuss 
these observations. 

1652
01:31:49,800 --> 01:31:53,000
The sharing isn't formal 
education as future 

1653
01:31:53,000 --> 01:31:55,000
civilizations will understand 
it. 

1654
01:31:55,700 --> 01:31:59,500
There are no schools, no books 
and no formal teachers but 

1655
01:31:59,500 --> 01:32:03,500
knowledge passes any way through
conversation and demonstration 

1656
01:32:03,500 --> 01:32:06,700
through the simple Act of 
pointing upward and helping 

1657
01:32:06,700 --> 01:32:07,900
others. 
See what you see? 

1658
01:32:09,100 --> 01:32:13,100
A young member of your group 
perhaps 10 or 11 years old sits 

1659
01:32:13,100 --> 01:32:15,600
beside you. 
One night you point out the 

1660
01:32:15,600 --> 01:32:19,500
patterns, you know, tracing 
invisible lines between stars 

1661
01:32:19,500 --> 01:32:22,800
with your finger. 
The child's eyes, follow your 

1662
01:32:22,800 --> 01:32:28,200
hand, and you can see the moment
of recognition that same spark 

1663
01:32:28,200 --> 01:32:31,100
of understanding that Lit your 
own mind years ago. 

1664
01:32:31,100 --> 01:32:35,600
The patterns aren't random. 
They mean, something they can be

1665
01:32:35,600 --> 01:32:39,200
learned, neither of you, 
realizes it, but you're creating

1666
01:32:39,208 --> 01:32:41,500
something that will Outlast both
your lives. 

1667
01:32:41,500 --> 01:32:45,600
Both your descendants and both 
your entire lineage is 

1668
01:32:45,600 --> 01:32:49,800
stretching forward, 10,000 
years, you're creating 

1669
01:32:49,800 --> 01:32:53,100
tradition, you're building the 
foundation of astronomy. 

1670
01:32:53,100 --> 01:32:57,300
The Stars, we all overhead 
indifferent, your newfound 

1671
01:32:57,300 --> 01:33:00,100
attention. 
They've been there for billions 

1672
01:33:00,100 --> 01:33:04,100
of years before you and they'll 
remain for billions more after 

1673
01:33:04,100 --> 01:33:07,400
your gone. 
But in this moment in the simple

1674
01:33:07,400 --> 01:33:11,000
Act of watching and wandering, 
you've joined a project that 

1675
01:33:11,000 --> 01:33:15,300
your species will continue for 
as long as it exists, you've 

1676
01:33:15,300 --> 01:33:18,300
started asking the question that
will echo through every 

1677
01:33:18,300 --> 01:33:21,900
civilization that follows What 
are those lights? 

1678
01:33:21,900 --> 01:33:26,800
And what do they mean? 
It's approximately 15,000 BC now

1679
01:33:26,800 --> 01:33:30,700
and your standing in what will 
eventually be known as Germany? 

1680
01:33:31,400 --> 01:33:35,100
Watching the moon rise over a 
landscape of ice and Scattered 

1681
01:33:35,100 --> 01:33:38,800
Pine, the glaciers have been 
retreating for Generations, but 

1682
01:33:38,800 --> 01:33:41,700
winter still brings a cold that 
can kill the unwary. 

1683
01:33:41,700 --> 01:33:45,600
You've survived 23 of these 
Winters which makes you 

1684
01:33:45,600 --> 01:33:48,500
remarkably old by the standards 
of your time. 

1685
01:33:48,500 --> 01:33:51,800
And you've learned something 
that younger people often miss. 

1686
01:33:52,600 --> 01:33:57,800
The Sky Keeps time. 
Not just any time the perfect 

1687
01:33:57,800 --> 01:34:00,500
time you discovered this 
gradually. 

1688
01:34:00,500 --> 01:34:04,400
The way most important things 
are discovered one year. 

1689
01:34:04,400 --> 01:34:08,200
You notice that the moon went 
through exactly 12 complete 

1690
01:34:08,200 --> 01:34:13,100
Cycles from new to full and back
to New again before the seasons 

1691
01:34:13,100 --> 01:34:17,300
completed their circuit. 
Well, almost 12:00 it was 

1692
01:34:17,308 --> 01:34:20,400
actually a bit more than 12 but 
close enough that you could use 

1693
01:34:20,400 --> 01:34:24,500
it as a rough calendar. 
When the moon had cycled through

1694
01:34:24,500 --> 01:34:28,900
its phases 12 times, you could 
expect the warm season to arrive

1695
01:34:28,900 --> 01:34:31,800
soon when it cycled through 
another 12. 

1696
01:34:31,800 --> 01:34:35,800
The cold would return. 
This was useful, but the moon 

1697
01:34:35,800 --> 01:34:37,800
alone wasn't quite reliable 
enough. 

1698
01:34:38,800 --> 01:34:42,900
Some years counting 12 moons 
brought you to the season change

1699
01:34:42,900 --> 01:34:45,700
right on schedule. 
Other years you'd be off by 

1700
01:34:45,700 --> 01:34:49,100
several weeks. 
It was frustrating like trying 

1701
01:34:49,100 --> 01:34:52,200
to catch fish with the net. 
That had inconsistent holes. 

1702
01:34:52,900 --> 01:34:56,700
But then you paid attention to 
the Stars specifically to which 

1703
01:34:56,700 --> 01:35:00,200
stars were visible. 
Just Before Dawn, you've noticed

1704
01:35:00,200 --> 01:35:03,500
that certain Stars would appear 
on the Eastern Horizon just 

1705
01:35:03,500 --> 01:35:07,000
before the sun rose and this 
appearance correlated even 

1706
01:35:07,000 --> 01:35:09,400
better with the seasons than the
moon did. 

1707
01:35:09,400 --> 01:35:13,400
When you could see a particular 
bright star Rising just before 

1708
01:35:13,400 --> 01:35:17,300
Daybreak you with certainty, 
that the herds would arrive 

1709
01:35:17,300 --> 01:35:20,900
within days. 
When another star made its first

1710
01:35:20,900 --> 01:35:24,000
pre-dawn appearance, you could 
prepare for the cold. 

1711
01:35:24,000 --> 01:35:26,600
You didn't know the physics 
behind this. 

1712
01:35:27,400 --> 01:35:30,500
You didn't know that Earth 
orbits the Sun or the Stars 

1713
01:35:30,500 --> 01:35:33,700
apparent, positions shifted 
gradually throughout the year 

1714
01:35:33,700 --> 01:35:37,900
because this orbital motion you 
didn't need to know the 

1715
01:35:37,900 --> 01:35:40,300
mechanism. 
You just needed to know it 

1716
01:35:40,300 --> 01:35:44,200
worked and it did with the 
reliability that bordered on the

1717
01:35:44,208 --> 01:35:47,500
miraculous. 
Other patterns emerged as you 

1718
01:35:47,500 --> 01:35:51,000
watched the moon's position 
against the background Stars 

1719
01:35:51,000 --> 01:35:55,400
changed nightly moving Eastward 
through the same star patterns 

1720
01:35:55,400 --> 01:35:57,200
that the sun seemed to travel 
through. 

1721
01:35:57,200 --> 01:36:00,300
During the year. 
The moon completed its journey 

1722
01:36:00,300 --> 01:36:05,000
through these patterns in about 
29 days, one, complete cycle, 

1723
01:36:05,000 --> 01:36:09,000
from New Moon to New Moon, This 
realization helped you 

1724
01:36:09,000 --> 01:36:12,000
understand why? 
The 12 months didn't quite match

1725
01:36:12,000 --> 01:36:15,500
up with the seasonal year, the 
moon and the sun were traveling 

1726
01:36:15,500 --> 01:36:19,000
along the same path through the 
stars, but at different speeds, 

1727
01:36:19,000 --> 01:36:23,200
you began marking these 
observations on Bones and 

1728
01:36:23,200 --> 01:36:27,900
antlers you carved, notches not 
random decorations, but 

1729
01:36:27,900 --> 01:36:33,100
deliberate counts, 29, notches 
for a lunar month. 12 sets of 

1730
01:36:33,100 --> 01:36:36,900
these for a year with additional
marks to track the discrepancy. 

1731
01:36:37,700 --> 01:36:40,500
These were not idle due to 
passed around a fire. 

1732
01:36:40,500 --> 01:36:43,500
They were data. 
They were records. 

1733
01:36:43,500 --> 01:36:48,200
They were Humanity's first bred 
sheets carved into whatever 

1734
01:36:48,200 --> 01:36:50,400
material was hard enough to 
last. 

1735
01:36:51,300 --> 01:36:54,900
The Precision of these records 
is startling modern 

1736
01:36:54,900 --> 01:36:58,600
archaeologists examining Ice Age
artifacts to found counting 

1737
01:36:58,600 --> 01:37:02,200
systems that tracked lunar 
phases with remarkable accuracy.

1738
01:37:03,200 --> 01:37:06,600
You weren't primitive in your 
thinking, you were sophisticated

1739
01:37:06,600 --> 01:37:09,500
observers using the tools of 
available to you. 

1740
01:37:09,500 --> 01:37:12,700
The fact that you lacked 
telescope or mathematical 

1741
01:37:12,700 --> 01:37:15,000
notation didn't make you less 
intelligent. 

1742
01:37:15,900 --> 01:37:19,000
It made you more impressive, 
actually, because you figured 

1743
01:37:19,000 --> 01:37:22,800
out so much with. 
So little this time keeping had 

1744
01:37:22,800 --> 01:37:26,500
immediate practical value, 
knowing when Seasons would 

1745
01:37:26,500 --> 01:37:30,100
change meant knowing when to 
move Camp when to hunt specific 

1746
01:37:30,100 --> 01:37:34,300
animals and went to gather 
particular plants, a group that 

1747
01:37:34,300 --> 01:37:37,800
could predict these changes had 
significant advantages over a 

1748
01:37:37,800 --> 01:37:41,000
group that reacted to them as 
they occurred. you could 

1749
01:37:41,000 --> 01:37:45,100
prepare, you could plan, you 
could survive when others might 

1750
01:37:45,100 --> 01:37:48,600
not Something else was 
happening, too something harder 

1751
01:37:48,600 --> 01:37:52,000
to quantify? 
By tracking time, you were 

1752
01:37:52,000 --> 01:37:55,300
developing a new relationship 
with the future instead of 

1753
01:37:55,300 --> 01:37:58,800
living entirely in the present 
moment, reacting to whatever 

1754
01:37:58,800 --> 01:38:02,600
each day brought you have 
beginning to anticipate, you 

1755
01:38:02,600 --> 01:38:06,700
were building mental models of 
how the world worked. models 

1756
01:38:06,700 --> 01:38:11,600
that extended Beyond immediate 
sensory experience you were in a

1757
01:38:11,608 --> 01:38:16,600
real sense beginning to think 
abstractly the night sky, became

1758
01:38:16,600 --> 01:38:20,300
your most reliable reference, 
the ground, Beneath Your Feet, 

1759
01:38:20,300 --> 01:38:24,000
change with floods and fires, 
and the slow grinding of 

1760
01:38:24,000 --> 01:38:28,600
glaciers, the plants and animals
around you, migrated and evolved

1761
01:38:28,600 --> 01:38:33,500
even the climate shifted across 
Generations, but those Stars 

1762
01:38:33,500 --> 01:38:37,600
those patterns in the sky 
remained constant enough to 

1763
01:38:37,600 --> 01:38:41,800
build your life around They were
the one fixed reference in a 

1764
01:38:41,800 --> 01:38:44,600
fluid world. 
You didn't worship the Stars 

1765
01:38:44,600 --> 01:38:47,500
exactly though, that would come 
later for other cultures. 

1766
01:38:47,500 --> 01:38:52,100
Your relationship with them was 
more practical than spiritual at

1767
01:38:52,100 --> 01:38:54,000
this point. 
They were tools. 

1768
01:38:54,000 --> 01:38:56,400
They were the most accurate 
calendar. 

1769
01:38:56,400 --> 01:39:00,600
You had the most reliable clock 
and the best map for predicting 

1770
01:39:00,600 --> 01:39:03,600
the future. 
They were quite literally your 

1771
01:39:03,600 --> 01:39:07,300
guide to survival as you stand 
there, watching the moon rise, 

1772
01:39:07,300 --> 01:39:12,400
you feel a satisfaction that 
transcends mere utility There's 

1773
01:39:12,400 --> 01:39:16,000
something deeply pleasing about 
understanding how the sky works.

1774
01:39:16,900 --> 01:39:20,100
About being able to predict what
will appear where and when 

1775
01:39:20,100 --> 01:39:23,700
you've turned mystery into 
knowledge and Chaos into 

1776
01:39:23,700 --> 01:39:26,900
pattern, you've looked at the 
universe and found it 

1777
01:39:26,900 --> 01:39:31,600
comprehensible the Stars 
continue their ancient dance and

1778
01:39:31,600 --> 01:39:35,000
you can continue your watch 
adding another night's 

1779
01:39:35,000 --> 01:39:37,900
observations to a lifetime of 
accumulated knowledge. 

1780
01:39:37,900 --> 01:39:41,500
You don't know that people will 
still be doing this same thing 

1781
01:39:41,500 --> 01:39:45,800
15,000 years from now. 
Using tools you can't imagine to

1782
01:39:45,800 --> 01:39:49,500
ask questions you'd never think 
to pose But you'd probably 

1783
01:39:49,508 --> 01:39:53,000
appreciate the continuity. 
You started something. 

1784
01:39:53,000 --> 01:39:57,000
After all, you've begun the long
project of mapping the heavens 

1785
01:39:57,000 --> 01:39:59,300
and that project has barely 
begun. 

1786
01:39:59,300 --> 01:40:02,900
You're standing on a ziggurat in
ancient Babylon. 

1787
01:40:02,900 --> 01:40:08,000
And the year is approximately 
1700 BCE the structure Beneath 

1788
01:40:08,000 --> 01:40:11,900
Your Feet rises in, massive 
tears above the Euphrates River 

1789
01:40:11,900 --> 01:40:14,600
Valley. 
Each level smaller than the one 

1790
01:40:14,600 --> 01:40:18,900
below creating a stepped pyramid
that serves as both Temple and 

1791
01:40:18,900 --> 01:40:21,900
Observatory. 
The years warm, it's almost 

1792
01:40:21,900 --> 01:40:25,700
always warm here and the sounds 
of the city of faded with the 

1793
01:40:25,700 --> 01:40:29,200
sunset. 
Now, there's just you the night 

1794
01:40:29,200 --> 01:40:33,500
and your duty, you are a priest 
astronomer which in this 

1795
01:40:33,500 --> 01:40:36,700
civilization means your one of 
the most powerful people in the 

1796
01:40:36,700 --> 01:40:39,800
Kingdom. 
King's consult you before making

1797
01:40:39,800 --> 01:40:43,300
important decisions. 
Farmers depend on your 

1798
01:40:43,300 --> 01:40:47,700
calculations to know when to 
plant the entire Empire runs 

1799
01:40:47,700 --> 01:40:50,500
according to calendars. 
You and your colleagues maintain

1800
01:40:50,500 --> 01:40:55,500
this isn't symbolic power. 
This is real Authority, derived 

1801
01:40:55,500 --> 01:40:59,000
from real knowledge and that 
knowledge comes from the sky. 

1802
01:40:59,000 --> 01:41:02,600
Your people have been watching 
the heavens systematically for 

1803
01:41:02,600 --> 01:41:05,900
centuries, keeping records that 
span Generations. 

1804
01:41:05,900 --> 01:41:09,300
These aren't casual observations
noted. 

1805
01:41:09,300 --> 01:41:10,800
When someone happens to 
remember. 

1806
01:41:10,800 --> 01:41:15,300
This is rigorous continuous 
monitoring with each night sky. 

1807
01:41:15,300 --> 01:41:19,000
Carefully recorded on clay 
tablets, that fill entire 

1808
01:41:19,000 --> 01:41:22,000
library's. 
You've inherited these records 

1809
01:41:22,000 --> 01:41:25,600
and you add to them. 
Nightly continuing a scientific 

1810
01:41:25,600 --> 01:41:28,600
tradition, that will Outlast 
your civilization itself. 

1811
01:41:29,500 --> 01:41:33,500
Tonight, your tracking Venus, 
the evening star. 

1812
01:41:33,500 --> 01:41:35,500
You call it though, you've 
noticed it all. 

1813
01:41:35,500 --> 01:41:39,200
So appears as the Morning Star 
at different times of year, what

1814
01:41:39,200 --> 01:41:42,100
you don't yet realize is that 
these are the same object. 

1815
01:41:42,100 --> 01:41:45,100
A planet closer to the Sun than 
Earth. 

1816
01:41:45,900 --> 01:41:49,200
Though the concept of planets, 
as worlds, rather than wandering

1817
01:41:49,200 --> 01:41:53,400
stars is still centuries away. 
What you do know is that Venus 

1818
01:41:53,400 --> 01:41:57,000
follows a complex pattern 
through the sky, appearing and 

1819
01:41:57,000 --> 01:42:00,900
disappearing with a regularity 
you've learned to predict This 

1820
01:42:00,900 --> 01:42:04,800
predictability is everything in 
a world where so much is 

1821
01:42:04,800 --> 01:42:07,800
uncertain. 
Where crops might fail where 

1822
01:42:07,800 --> 01:42:11,800
diseases strike without warning,
where enemies could attack at 

1823
01:42:11,800 --> 01:42:15,400
any time. 
The sky offers constancy, the 

1824
01:42:15,400 --> 01:42:18,600
fact that you can predict 
celestial events, gives you a 

1825
01:42:18,600 --> 01:42:22,400
kind of power over chaos itself,
when you announce that Venus 

1826
01:42:22,400 --> 01:42:26,200
will disappear from the evening 
sky and 5 days and reappear as 

1827
01:42:26,200 --> 01:42:29,700
the morning star in 83 days and 
then it happens. 

1828
01:42:29,700 --> 01:42:31,900
Exactly. 
As you've said, your 

1829
01:42:31,900 --> 01:42:35,500
demonstrating Mastery over the 
cosmos itself, or at least 

1830
01:42:35,500 --> 01:42:38,200
that's how it appears to those, 
who don't understand your 

1831
01:42:38,200 --> 01:42:40,800
methods. 
But you understand your methods 

1832
01:42:40,800 --> 01:42:45,000
and then not magic, their 
mathematics, your civilization 

1833
01:42:45,000 --> 01:42:49,500
has developed sophisticated 
arithmetic, including a basic 60

1834
01:42:49,500 --> 01:42:53,100
counting system, that will 
eventually give the world 60 

1835
01:42:53,100 --> 01:42:54,900
seconds minutes and 60 Minutes 
hours. 

1836
01:42:54,900 --> 01:42:58,500
You use this mathematics to 
track Celestial Cycles, 

1837
01:42:58,500 --> 01:43:02,400
calculating the relationship. 
Between different astronomical 

1838
01:43:02,400 --> 01:43:04,800
periods with impressive, 
precision. 

1839
01:43:05,700 --> 01:43:09,400
The moon has been especially 
well studied your predecessors 

1840
01:43:09,400 --> 01:43:13,900
discovered the Sorrows cycle, a 
period of approximately 18 years

1841
01:43:13,900 --> 01:43:18,900
and 11 days after which eclipses
repeat in almost identical 

1842
01:43:18,900 --> 01:43:21,600
patterns. 
This means that if you record 

1843
01:43:21,600 --> 01:43:25,900
every eclipse for 18 years, you 
can predict eclipses for the 

1844
01:43:25,900 --> 01:43:28,400
next 18 years and the 18. 
After that. 

1845
01:43:28,400 --> 01:43:32,900
It's not perfect small 
variations accumulate over time,

1846
01:43:32,900 --> 01:43:37,000
but it's remarkably accurate, 
and it makes you appear. 

1847
01:43:37,000 --> 01:43:40,500
Almost prophetic to those who 
don't know, the mathematics 

1848
01:43:40,500 --> 01:43:43,700
behind your predictions. 
You've all been tracking the 

1849
01:43:43,700 --> 01:43:47,100
five visible planets though. 
You don't call them that yet. 

1850
01:43:47,900 --> 01:43:53,600
Mercury, Venus Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn wander among the fixed 

1851
01:43:53,600 --> 01:43:56,200
Stars. 
Each following its own complex 

1852
01:43:56,200 --> 01:43:58,900
path. 
Mercury never Strays far from 

1853
01:43:58,900 --> 01:44:04,300
the Sun appearing briefly, after
sunset, or Before Sunrise, Venus

1854
01:44:04,300 --> 01:44:07,400
make its more dramatic 
appearance is becoming the 

1855
01:44:07,400 --> 01:44:10,700
brightest object in the sky, 
besides the Sun and Moon. 

1856
01:44:10,700 --> 01:44:15,100
Mars occasionally seems to move 
backward a phenomenon called 

1857
01:44:15,100 --> 01:44:18,300
retrograde motion, that will 
puzzle astronomers for 

1858
01:44:18,300 --> 01:44:22,300
centuries. 
Jupiter and Saturn, move more 

1859
01:44:22,300 --> 01:44:25,700
slowly taking years to complete 
their Journeys. 

1860
01:44:25,700 --> 01:44:29,100
Through the Stars, these 
observations have practical 

1861
01:44:29,100 --> 01:44:32,400
applications. 
Your calendar based on lunar 

1862
01:44:32,400 --> 01:44:35,000
months, but adjusted to keep 
Pace with the solar year, 

1863
01:44:35,000 --> 01:44:38,300
requires constant monitoring to 
remain accurate. 

1864
01:44:38,300 --> 01:44:41,800
You add extra months when 
necessary a practice called 

1865
01:44:41,800 --> 01:44:45,800
intercalation to prevent the 
calendar from drifting away from

1866
01:44:45,800 --> 01:44:48,500
the seasons. 
This ensures that religious 

1867
01:44:48,500 --> 01:44:51,900
festivals occur at the 
appropriate times of year that 

1868
01:44:51,900 --> 01:44:55,400
Farmers plant at the optimal 
moment and that the entire 

1869
01:44:55,400 --> 01:44:59,000
civilization stays synchronized 
with natural cycles. 

1870
01:45:00,300 --> 01:45:02,800
But there's more than 
practicality at work here. 

1871
01:45:02,800 --> 01:45:07,500
You've begun to see patterns 
within patterns relationships 

1872
01:45:07,500 --> 01:45:10,500
between celestial events. 
That suggests the universe 

1873
01:45:10,500 --> 01:45:13,200
operates according to 
comprehensible rules. 

1874
01:45:13,200 --> 01:45:16,600
When you calculate that Mars 
will appear in a certain 

1875
01:45:16,600 --> 01:45:20,700
position relative to certain 
stars on a certain date and then

1876
01:45:20,700 --> 01:45:23,400
it happens. 
You're not just predicting the 

1877
01:45:23,400 --> 01:45:27,000
future your Glimpse in the 
underlying order of creation 

1878
01:45:27,000 --> 01:45:30,000
itself. 
Your culture has woven the sky 

1879
01:45:30,000 --> 01:45:35,000
into every aspect of life. 
The Zodiac those 12 patterns of 

1880
01:45:35,000 --> 01:45:38,100
stars through which the Sun 
appears to travel during the 

1881
01:45:38,100 --> 01:45:41,900
year, has become a framework for
understanding time. 

1882
01:45:41,900 --> 01:45:46,000
And fate each month, belongs to 
a different zodiac sign. 

1883
01:45:46,000 --> 01:45:49,600
And the position of planets 
within these signs is believed 

1884
01:45:49,600 --> 01:45:53,000
influence Earthly events. 
This is the beginning of 

1885
01:45:53,008 --> 01:45:56,600
astrology, which will later 
diverge from astronomy, but 

1886
01:45:56,600 --> 01:45:59,700
which in your time is 
inseparable from it. 

1887
01:46:00,700 --> 01:46:04,400
Both are attempts to find 
meaning in the sky to understand

1888
01:46:04,400 --> 01:46:07,800
how Celestial patterns relate to
terrestrial existence. 

1889
01:46:07,800 --> 01:46:11,300
You don't see a conflict between
the spiritual and the 

1890
01:46:11,300 --> 01:46:16,000
mathematical for you calculating
the precise moment of Aluna 

1891
01:46:16,000 --> 01:46:19,500
eclipse and believing that 
Eclipse carries Divine. 

1892
01:46:19,500 --> 01:46:23,900
Significance are complementary 
activities, the mathematics 

1893
01:46:23,900 --> 01:46:28,000
proves the divine order The 
predictability of the heavens 

1894
01:46:28,000 --> 01:46:31,700
demonstrates that the universe 
is not chaotic but rather 

1895
01:46:31,700 --> 01:46:34,100
follows laws established by the 
Gods. 

1896
01:46:34,900 --> 01:46:38,600
Your calculations are in a 
sense, a way of reading the gods

1897
01:46:38,600 --> 01:46:43,000
intention as the night deepens. 
You record your observations on 

1898
01:46:43,000 --> 01:46:43,900
a fresh. 
Clay. 

1899
01:46:43,900 --> 01:46:47,900
Tablet pressing wedge-shaped 
marks into the soft surface with

1900
01:46:47,900 --> 01:46:52,200
your reads stylists. 
Centuries from now archeologists

1901
01:46:52,200 --> 01:46:56,100
will unearth tablets like this 
and Marvel at their accuracy. 

1902
01:46:56,100 --> 01:47:00,400
They'll recognize genuine 
astronomical data recorded with 

1903
01:47:00,400 --> 01:47:04,400
scientific precision, they'll 
see that your civilization 

1904
01:47:04,400 --> 01:47:08,400
understood far more about 
Celestial mechanics than history

1905
01:47:08,400 --> 01:47:13,300
often credits you with knowing 
but for now, you're simply doing

1906
01:47:13,300 --> 01:47:18,800
your job, you're watching 
recording calculating and slowly

1907
01:47:18,800 --> 01:47:21,700
building a body of knowledge 
that will influence every 

1908
01:47:21,700 --> 01:47:26,800
civilization that follows When 
Greek astronomers later develop 

1909
01:47:26,800 --> 01:47:30,400
their models of the cosmos, 
they'll build on Babylonian 

1910
01:47:30,400 --> 01:47:34,500
observations when Islamic 
scholars, preserve an expand 

1911
01:47:34,500 --> 01:47:38,000
astronomical knowledge during 
Europe's, Dark Ages, Phil 

1912
01:47:38,000 --> 01:47:42,200
reference batoni and Mathematics
when modern astronomy, finally 

1913
01:47:42,200 --> 01:47:45,100
emerges it will carry forward, 
Traditions that began on 

1914
01:47:45,100 --> 01:47:47,200
ziggurats. 
Like the one beneath your feet. 

1915
01:47:48,100 --> 01:47:52,500
The Stars wheel overhead, the 
same stars that Ice Age Hunters 

1916
01:47:52,500 --> 01:47:55,200
watched but you're seeing them 
differently. 

1917
01:47:55,200 --> 01:47:59,500
Now your measuring them 
calculating their movements and 

1918
01:47:59,500 --> 01:48:02,500
finding mathematical 
relationships in their patterns.

1919
01:48:03,400 --> 01:48:07,500
You've transformed them from 
mysterious lights into data 

1920
01:48:07,500 --> 01:48:09,900
points. 
In an increasingly sophisticated

1921
01:48:09,900 --> 01:48:13,700
understanding of the cosmos. 
You've turned Wonder into 

1922
01:48:13,700 --> 01:48:15,800
science, though. 
You don't use that word yet. 

1923
01:48:16,600 --> 01:48:20,700
Above you, the Milky Way glows 
and somewhere within it though, 

1924
01:48:20,700 --> 01:48:24,200
you'll never know this, the 
light of your own sun is just 

1925
01:48:24,200 --> 01:48:28,700
one star among billions. 
But on this night in this 

1926
01:48:28,700 --> 01:48:32,700
moment, you're doing the work 
that will eventually reveal even

1927
01:48:32,700 --> 01:48:36,300
that humbling. 
Truth, your watching recording 

1928
01:48:36,300 --> 01:48:40,200
and thinking activities that 
will prove to be among 

1929
01:48:40,200 --> 01:48:43,800
Humanity's most powerful tools 
for understanding the universe. 

1930
01:48:44,700 --> 01:48:48,600
Your standing on the deck of a 
Polynesian voyaging canoe, and 

1931
01:48:48,600 --> 01:48:53,400
the year is approximately 800 
CE, the nearest land is three 

1932
01:48:53,400 --> 01:48:57,600
days behind you and the nearest 
land ahead is perhaps five days 

1933
01:48:57,600 --> 01:48:59,900
away. 
Though you won't know for 

1934
01:48:59,900 --> 01:49:02,600
certain until you see it around 
you. 

1935
01:49:02,600 --> 01:49:06,700
The Pacific Ocean extends to 
every Horizon an expanse of 

1936
01:49:06,708 --> 01:49:08,800
water. 
So vast that all the world's 

1937
01:49:08,800 --> 01:49:12,600
land could fit within it with 
room to spare And you have no 

1938
01:49:12,600 --> 01:49:19,000
instruments, no Compass, no sex,
and no GPS, you have something 

1939
01:49:19,000 --> 01:49:22,700
better, you have the stars and 
you know, how to read them. 

1940
01:49:23,500 --> 01:49:28,000
Your canoe is magnificent, 60 
feet of a hull carved from 

1941
01:49:28,000 --> 01:49:31,900
breadfruit trees with two, hulls
joined by a platform that 

1942
01:49:31,900 --> 01:49:34,000
provides stability and rough 
Seas. 

1943
01:49:34,000 --> 01:49:39,100
The sale is woven from pandanus 
leaves and it catches the trade 

1944
01:49:39,100 --> 01:49:42,100
winds that will carry you, 
across hundreds of miles of open

1945
01:49:42,100 --> 01:49:44,700
ocean. 
You're traveling with 30 other 

1946
01:49:44,700 --> 01:49:48,100
people carrying plants and 
animals to establish on a new 

1947
01:49:48,108 --> 01:49:50,200
island. 
Assuming you find it. 

1948
01:49:51,000 --> 01:49:54,000
This isn't exploration for 
exploration's sake. 

1949
01:49:54,008 --> 01:49:59,400
This is colonization migration. 
The deliberate expansion of your

1950
01:49:59,400 --> 01:50:04,100
people across a vast ocean and 
your navigating by methods, that

1951
01:50:04,100 --> 01:50:07,400
would seem impossible to many 
other cultures you have no 

1952
01:50:07,400 --> 01:50:10,600
written charts. 
You've never ridden down any 

1953
01:50:10,600 --> 01:50:14,300
direction or drawn any Maps, 
everything, you know about 

1954
01:50:14,300 --> 01:50:19,200
navigation, every technique, 
every star path, every wave 

1955
01:50:19,200 --> 01:50:23,100
pattern exists in your memory. 
And in the memories of The 

1956
01:50:23,100 --> 01:50:26,600
Navigators who taught you, this 
knowledge was passed down 

1957
01:50:26,600 --> 01:50:31,100
orally, demonstrated as sea and 
practice until it became 

1958
01:50:31,100 --> 01:50:34,700
intuitive. 
What looks like magic to outside

1959
01:50:34,700 --> 01:50:39,100
is actually a sophisticated 
science based on careful 

1960
01:50:39,100 --> 01:50:40,900
observation of natural 
phenomena. 

1961
01:50:40,900 --> 01:50:46,900
The stars are your primary tools
Before departing you memorize 

1962
01:50:46,900 --> 01:50:50,800
star paths. 
Specific stars that rise and set

1963
01:50:50,800 --> 01:50:54,600
at consistent points on the 
horizon, creating paths across 

1964
01:50:54,600 --> 01:50:57,600
the sky, that correspond to 
directions across the ocean. 

1965
01:50:57,600 --> 01:51:01,300
When you want to sail toward 
your destination Island, you 

1966
01:51:01,300 --> 01:51:05,000
identify the appropriate star 
path and keep your canoe aligned

1967
01:51:05,000 --> 01:51:08,100
with it. 
As each star rises in the East 

1968
01:51:08,100 --> 01:51:13,100
travels across the sky and sets 
in the west, you use it to 

1969
01:51:13,100 --> 01:51:17,000
maintain your course, when one 
star becomes too high to use 

1970
01:51:17,000 --> 01:51:19,900
effectively. 
You switch to the next star in 

1971
01:51:19,900 --> 01:51:24,000
the sequence. 
This continues all night every 

1972
01:51:24,000 --> 01:51:27,200
night for as many nights as the 
journey requires. 

1973
01:51:27,200 --> 01:51:31,400
During the day, you have the sun
which Rises and sets at 

1974
01:51:31,400 --> 01:51:33,500
predictable points, depending on
the season. 

1975
01:51:34,600 --> 01:51:38,600
You also have the swells long 
period waves generated by 

1976
01:51:38,600 --> 01:51:42,500
distant storms that travel 
across the ocean inconsistent 

1977
01:51:42,500 --> 01:51:45,300
Direction's. 
You can feel these swells 

1978
01:51:45,300 --> 01:51:48,600
through the hole and sense their
Direction even when surface 

1979
01:51:48,600 --> 01:51:52,500
waves obscure them. 
By combining Sun position with 

1980
01:51:52,500 --> 01:51:55,600
swell Direction. 
You maintain your course, during

1981
01:51:55,600 --> 01:51:58,700
daylight hours. 
But the Stars provide the most 

1982
01:51:58,700 --> 01:52:02,800
reliable guidance, You know, 
dozens of stars by name 

1983
01:52:02,800 --> 01:52:06,600
understand their rising and 
setting points and can estimate 

1984
01:52:06,600 --> 01:52:09,900
your latitude, by observing, 
which stars passed directly 

1985
01:52:09,900 --> 01:52:13,600
overhead. 
The North Star Polaris is too 

1986
01:52:13,600 --> 01:52:17,300
far north to be useful in most 
of the Pacific, but other stars,

1987
01:52:17,300 --> 01:52:21,000
serve, similar functions, the 
Southern Cross points. 

1988
01:52:21,000 --> 01:52:26,100
South Arcturus which you call 
hooker, Leah, passes, nearly 

1989
01:52:26,100 --> 01:52:30,500
overhead at Hawaii's latitude. 
When Hawker is directly above 

1990
01:52:30,500 --> 01:52:33,600
you, you know, you're at the 
correct latitude to find those 

1991
01:52:33,600 --> 01:52:36,800
islands. 
You've also memorized reference 

1992
01:52:36,800 --> 01:52:40,400
Islands, small, atolls and 
islands that lie between your 

1993
01:52:40,400 --> 01:52:44,400
starting point and destination. 
Even if you don't plan to stop 

1994
01:52:44,400 --> 01:52:47,200
at these references, knowing 
their positions, helps you 

1995
01:52:47,200 --> 01:52:51,400
navigate If you spot one of them
you can adjust your course 

1996
01:52:51,400 --> 01:52:55,600
accordingly, if you don't spot 
one, you expected to see you 

1997
01:52:55,600 --> 01:52:58,600
know you've drifted and can 
calculate the correction needed.

1998
01:52:59,600 --> 01:53:02,200
The sophistication of this 
system is staggering. 

1999
01:53:02,200 --> 01:53:05,100
You're essentially maintaining 
dead reckoning. 

2000
01:53:05,100 --> 01:53:08,400
Across hundreds or thousands of 
miles of featureless ocean 

2001
01:53:08,400 --> 01:53:12,200
updating your position. 
Constantly based on every 

2002
01:53:12,200 --> 01:53:16,200
available cue, you watch for 
clouds that form over distant 

2003
01:53:16,200 --> 01:53:20,300
Islands, invisible below the 
Horizon but revealed by the 

2004
01:53:20,300 --> 01:53:24,300
clouds they generate. 
You observe sea birds and know 

2005
01:53:24,300 --> 01:53:28,100
which species fly far from land 
and which stay close to shore 

2006
01:53:28,100 --> 01:53:32,600
you note the color of the water,
the type of floating debris and 

2007
01:53:32,600 --> 01:53:35,600
the temperature changes that 
indicate different currents. 

2008
01:53:36,400 --> 01:53:40,000
On clear nights, the navigation 
is almost relaxing. 

2009
01:53:40,000 --> 01:53:43,900
The stars are bright and 
obvious, the moon provides 

2010
01:53:43,900 --> 01:53:46,900
additional light and you can see
the Horizon clearly. 

2011
01:53:47,900 --> 01:53:50,500
But tonight clouds obscure much 
of the sky. 

2012
01:53:51,300 --> 01:53:54,600
This would Panic a less 
experienced Navigator, but 

2013
01:53:54,600 --> 01:53:58,300
you've sailed through worse 
conditions, you find gaps in the

2014
01:53:58,300 --> 01:54:01,100
clouds. 
Catch glimpses of familiar stars

2015
01:54:01,100 --> 01:54:03,900
and use those brief views to 
maintain your course. 

2016
01:54:04,700 --> 01:54:08,900
When stars aren't visible at 
all, you rely on the swells, on 

2017
01:54:08,900 --> 01:54:12,600
the winds Direction, and on 
subtle signs that others might 

2018
01:54:12,600 --> 01:54:16,500
miss entirely, your people have 
been making Journeys like this 

2019
01:54:16,500 --> 01:54:21,200
for over 1,000 years, spreading 
across the Pacific in waves of 

2020
01:54:21,208 --> 01:54:25,400
migration that populated Islands
from Hawaii to New Zealand to 

2021
01:54:25,400 --> 01:54:28,100
Easter Island. 
This represents one of 

2022
01:54:28,100 --> 01:54:31,000
Humanity's greatest 
navigational, achievements 

2023
01:54:31,000 --> 01:54:34,700
settling thousands of islands 
scattered across the world's 

2024
01:54:34,700 --> 01:54:39,900
largest ocean using nothing but 
observation memory and skill 

2025
01:54:39,900 --> 01:54:44,000
cultures with metal tools and 
written languages couldn't match

2026
01:54:44,000 --> 01:54:47,100
what your people accomplished 
with wooden, canoes and oral 

2027
01:54:47,100 --> 01:54:52,600
knowledge. the key was the Stars
reliability on a notion with out

2028
01:54:52,600 --> 01:54:56,700
landmarks where current can push
you off course and wins can 

2029
01:54:56,700 --> 01:55:01,500
shift unpredictably the Stars 
remained constant They appeared 

2030
01:55:01,500 --> 01:55:05,700
in the same positions, followed 
the same paths and maintain 

2031
01:55:05,700 --> 01:55:07,600
their same relationships to each
other. 

2032
01:55:07,600 --> 01:55:11,300
This Celestial constancy 
provided the reference frame, 

2033
01:55:11,300 --> 01:55:14,100
you needed to navigate 
terrestrial uncertainty. 

2034
01:55:14,800 --> 01:55:18,300
Your navigation is astronomy in 
its most practical form. 

2035
01:55:18,300 --> 01:55:21,400
You don't care about the 
physical nature of stars. 

2036
01:55:21,400 --> 01:55:24,200
Whether they're distant Sons or 
lights on. 

2037
01:55:24,200 --> 01:55:27,200
A celestial sphere, makes no 
difference to your work. 

2038
01:55:28,200 --> 01:55:31,900
What matters is their positions,
their movements and they 

2039
01:55:31,900 --> 01:55:35,800
usefulness as guides you've 
developed and applied science of

2040
01:55:35,800 --> 01:55:39,500
astronomy focused, entirely on 
what works rather than why it 

2041
01:55:39,500 --> 01:55:42,100
works. 
Your theories about the cosmos. 

2042
01:55:42,100 --> 01:55:46,600
Might strike later astronomers 
as primitive But your practical 

2043
01:55:46,600 --> 01:55:49,800
knowledge of celestial 
navigation, is extraordinarily 

2044
01:55:49,800 --> 01:55:53,100
sophisticated. 
As Dawn, approaches you spot 

2045
01:55:53,100 --> 01:55:57,100
something on the horizon. 
Cloud with a greenish tinted at 

2046
01:55:57,100 --> 01:56:00,800
his base reflecting vegetation 
on an island below. 

2047
01:56:01,600 --> 01:56:05,200
It's the reference at all. 
You expected to see right? 

2048
01:56:05,200 --> 01:56:08,400
Where it should be. 
Your navigation has been 

2049
01:56:08,400 --> 01:56:11,000
accurate. 
You adjust your course, slightly

2050
01:56:11,000 --> 01:56:14,700
compensating for the current 
that pushed you, marginally East

2051
01:56:14,700 --> 01:56:17,200
during the night. 
And Continued toward your 

2052
01:56:17,200 --> 01:56:19,200
destination around. 
You. 

2053
01:56:19,200 --> 01:56:22,900
People are waking preparing food
and tending to the plants and 

2054
01:56:22,900 --> 01:56:26,400
animals your transporting. 
Children play on the platform. 

2055
01:56:26,400 --> 01:56:29,700
Between the holes, two young to 
understand the Precision 

2056
01:56:29,700 --> 01:56:33,300
required to find a tiny Island 
in an enormous ocean. 

2057
01:56:33,300 --> 01:56:36,600
They'll learn though. 
Some of them will become 

2058
01:56:36,600 --> 01:56:40,400
Navigators themselves, 
memorizing, the same style of, 

2059
01:56:40,400 --> 01:56:45,000
you know, learning to read the 
same subtle signs and continuing

2060
01:56:45,000 --> 01:56:48,200
Traditions that stretch back 
through more Generations than 

2061
01:56:48,200 --> 01:56:53,300
anyone can count the sun rises 
and the Stars fade, your 

2062
01:56:53,300 --> 01:56:55,500
nighttime navigation, tools 
disappear. 

2063
01:56:55,500 --> 01:56:59,000
But you've already noted your 
position and set your daytime 

2064
01:56:59,000 --> 01:57:02,600
course in a few days. 
If your calculations remain 

2065
01:57:02,600 --> 01:57:06,200
accurate, you'll cite your 
destination, a new island to 

2066
01:57:06,200 --> 01:57:10,400
settle a new home for your 
people found by following lights

2067
01:57:10,400 --> 01:57:13,700
in the sky across an ocean. 
That covers nearly a third of 

2068
01:57:13,700 --> 01:57:16,600
the planet. 
The Stars didn't care about your

2069
01:57:16,600 --> 01:57:19,100
journey. 
They would have shown just as 

2070
01:57:19,100 --> 01:57:22,100
brightly, whether you were there
to see them or not, but by 

2071
01:57:22,100 --> 01:57:25,500
learning to read them by 
understanding their movements 

2072
01:57:25,500 --> 01:57:27,600
with the off Precision to stake,
your life. 

2073
01:57:27,600 --> 01:57:31,300
On that understanding, you've 
transformed them from merely 

2074
01:57:31,300 --> 01:57:36,000
beautiful lights into the most 
reliable tools Humanity has ever

2075
01:57:36,000 --> 01:57:40,600
found for exploring the world. 
You've proven that careful 

2076
01:57:40,600 --> 01:57:43,800
observation and rigorous mental 
training, can overcome seemingly

2077
01:57:43,800 --> 01:57:48,000
impossible challenges? 
You've shown that the sky is 

2078
01:57:48,000 --> 01:57:49,700
more than something to wonder 
at. 

2079
01:57:50,400 --> 01:57:55,300
It's something to use to rely on
and to trust with your survival 

2080
01:57:55,300 --> 01:57:58,300
and in doing. 
So you've continued the project 

2081
01:57:58,300 --> 01:58:00,500
begun by those Ice Age 
observers. 

2082
01:58:00,500 --> 01:58:04,200
The long patient work of 
understanding what those lights 

2083
01:58:04,200 --> 01:58:06,300
are and what they can tell us 
about the world. 

2084
01:58:06,300 --> 01:58:10,500
We inhabit your standing in the 
Library of Alexandria and the 

2085
01:58:10,500 --> 01:58:15,000
year is approximately 200 BCE 
the room around, you can 

2086
01:58:15,000 --> 01:58:18,700
contains hundreds of thousands, 
of Scrolls, the accumulated, 

2087
01:58:18,700 --> 01:58:21,900
knowledge of the ancient world 
gathered from every culture. 

2088
01:58:21,900 --> 01:58:26,600
The Hellenistic Empire has 
touched But right now, you're 

2089
01:58:26,600 --> 01:58:28,600
not interested in poetry or 
philosophy. 

2090
01:58:28,600 --> 01:58:32,000
Your focused on a particular. 
Scroll that contains 

2091
01:58:32,000 --> 01:58:35,700
astronomical observations from 
Babylon and you're trying to 

2092
01:58:35,700 --> 01:58:39,200
reconcile those observations 
with a new geometric model of 

2093
01:58:39,200 --> 01:58:43,100
the cosmos you are in the 
terminology of your time, a 

2094
01:58:43,100 --> 01:58:46,400
mathematician and natural 
philosopher though, later ages 

2095
01:58:46,400 --> 01:58:49,800
will call you an astronomer. 
Your name might be remembered, 

2096
01:58:49,800 --> 01:58:53,900
perhaps your aristarchus or 
eratosthenes or hipparchus. 

2097
01:58:54,600 --> 01:58:57,900
Or it might be forgotten. 
Lost among the thousands of 

2098
01:58:57,900 --> 01:59:00,900
Scholars who worked in 
Alexandria during its golden 

2099
01:59:00,900 --> 01:59:02,700
age. 
But whether or not your 

2100
01:59:02,700 --> 01:59:06,400
individual name, survives the 
work you're doing will change 

2101
01:59:06,400 --> 01:59:09,000
Humanity's relationship with the
sky forever. 

2102
01:59:09,000 --> 01:59:13,200
You're not just observing the 
heavens anymore, your measuring 

2103
01:59:13,200 --> 01:59:17,100
them, this represents a 
fundamental shift in approach 

2104
01:59:17,100 --> 01:59:20,900
earlier civilizations. 
Watched the sky and recorded 

2105
01:59:20,900 --> 01:59:24,600
what they saw identifying 
patterns and using those 

2106
01:59:24,600 --> 01:59:28,200
patterns for practical purposes,
you're doing something 

2107
01:59:28,200 --> 01:59:30,900
different. 
You're asking quantitative 

2108
01:59:30,900 --> 01:59:34,700
questions and demanding 
numerical answers, not just 

2109
01:59:34,700 --> 01:59:36,400
where does the sun appear to 
move? 

2110
01:59:36,400 --> 01:59:40,300
But how large is the Sun? 
Not just do the stars move, but 

2111
01:59:40,300 --> 01:59:44,400
how far away are they? 
Your culture has advantages that

2112
01:59:44,400 --> 01:59:48,200
earlier observers lacked Greek 
mathematics has developed 

2113
01:59:48,200 --> 01:59:50,900
geometric tools. 
Powerful enough to model 

2114
01:59:50,900 --> 01:59:55,000
Celestial mechanics, your 
understanding of circles angles 

2115
01:59:55,000 --> 01:59:58,000
and ratios allows you to make 
calculations that would have 

2116
01:59:58,008 --> 02:00:01,500
been impossible for the 
Babylonians despite their 

2117
02:00:01,500 --> 02:00:04,600
sophisticated arithmetic. 
You also have access to 

2118
02:00:04,600 --> 02:00:08,400
centuries of Babylonian 
observations giving you data 

2119
02:00:08,400 --> 02:00:11,800
spanning longer periods than any
single lifetime could provide 

2120
02:00:11,800 --> 02:00:15,400
consider eritos. 
These famous calculation of 

2121
02:00:15,408 --> 02:00:19,000
Earth's circumference performed 
right here in Alexandria, 

2122
02:00:19,000 --> 02:00:23,200
roughly 50 years ago. 
He noticed that at noon on the 

2123
02:00:23,200 --> 02:00:27,600
summer solstice, The sun was 
directly overhead in seen 

2124
02:00:27,600 --> 02:00:31,800
casting no Shadow. 
While in Alexandria It cast a 

2125
02:00:31,800 --> 02:00:35,700
shadow corresponding to an angle
of approximately 7 degrees. 

2126
02:00:35,700 --> 02:00:39,100
By measuring the distance 
between these cities and using 

2127
02:00:39,100 --> 02:00:42,200
basic geometry. 
He calculated Earth's 

2128
02:00:42,200 --> 02:00:46,300
circumference with remarkable 
accuracy, this wasn't just 

2129
02:00:46,300 --> 02:00:48,300
clever. 
It was revolutionary. 

2130
02:00:48,300 --> 02:00:52,500
He'd measured the size of the 
entire planet using nothing but 

2131
02:00:52,500 --> 02:00:56,800
Shadows, angles and reasoning. 
Your attempting something. 

2132
02:00:56,800 --> 02:01:02,100
Similarly audacious Calculating 
the distance to the Moon, you 

2133
02:01:02,100 --> 02:01:05,000
know, that during a lunar 
eclipse, Earth's Shadow falls on

2134
02:01:05,000 --> 02:01:08,400
the moon and by carefully 
measuring the Shadows size 

2135
02:01:08,400 --> 02:01:12,200
relative to the moon's diameter.
You can determine the ratio of 

2136
02:01:12,200 --> 02:01:15,200
distances. 
The mathematics is tricky. 

2137
02:01:15,200 --> 02:01:20,100
You need precise observations of
eclipses, careful, measurements 

2138
02:01:20,100 --> 02:01:24,200
of angles and sophisticated 
geometric reasoning, but is 

2139
02:01:24,200 --> 02:01:26,300
doable. 
And when you finish, you'll have

2140
02:01:26,300 --> 02:01:30,300
a number The Moon is 
approximately 60 Earth radii 

2141
02:01:30,300 --> 02:01:33,500
away. 
This is astonishing accuracy for

2142
02:01:33,500 --> 02:01:37,000
observations made with naked 
eyes and simple measuring tools.

2143
02:01:37,800 --> 02:01:41,600
You have no telescope's, no 
Precision Instruments, just 

2144
02:01:41,600 --> 02:01:45,200
calibrated sticks and circles 
divided into degrees. 

2145
02:01:45,200 --> 02:01:50,000
Your determining Cosmic distance
is measuring the unmeasurable 

2146
02:01:50,000 --> 02:01:53,400
pulling numbers from what had 
been pure mystery. 

2147
02:01:54,300 --> 02:01:57,600
Other scholars in Alexandria 
attacking different questions. 

2148
02:01:57,600 --> 02:02:02,300
Aristarchus is proposed 
something radical, perhaps Earth

2149
02:02:02,300 --> 02:02:06,900
orbits the sun rather than the 
reverse his geometric arguments 

2150
02:02:06,900 --> 02:02:10,700
are compelling if Earth's 
circles the sun, it explains 

2151
02:02:10,700 --> 02:02:14,300
certain observations about 
planetary motions more elegantly

2152
02:02:14,300 --> 02:02:18,400
than the traditional model. 
But his idea faces resistance. 

2153
02:02:18,400 --> 02:02:23,000
If Earth moves shouldn't, we 
feel it shouldn't the Stars 

2154
02:02:23,000 --> 02:02:26,100
shift position as Earth travels 
around its orbit. 

2155
02:02:26,900 --> 02:02:29,300
The lack of observable, stellar 
parallax. 

2156
02:02:29,300 --> 02:02:32,500
The apparent shift in Star 
positions caused by. 

2157
02:02:32,500 --> 02:02:36,000
Earth's motion seems to argue 
against a moving Earth. 

2158
02:02:36,000 --> 02:02:39,300
What aristarchus doesn't know is
that he's right? 

2159
02:02:39,300 --> 02:02:43,200
But the stars are far more 
distant than anyone imagines. 

2160
02:02:43,900 --> 02:02:47,400
The Parallax exists, but it's 
too small to detect with our 

2161
02:02:47,400 --> 02:02:50,300
telescopes. 
His correct Theory will be 

2162
02:02:50,300 --> 02:02:54,400
largely forgotten, buried under 
the weight of common sense, that

2163
02:02:54,400 --> 02:02:58,400
insists the Solid Ground beneath
our feet must be stationary. 

2164
02:02:59,300 --> 02:03:01,300
Truth. 
Sometimes loses to intuition. 

2165
02:03:01,300 --> 02:03:06,200
At least temporarily you're also
working on cataloging stars with

2166
02:03:06,200 --> 02:03:10,400
unprecedented precision. 
Your predecessor had Parker's 

2167
02:03:10,400 --> 02:03:15,100
created a star catalog that 
listed roughly 1000 Stars noting

2168
02:03:15,100 --> 02:03:19,000
their positions and relative 
brightnesses, you're expanding 

2169
02:03:19,000 --> 02:03:23,500
this, work adding more stars, 
refining the measurements and 

2170
02:03:23,500 --> 02:03:26,700
developing a magnitude system to
classify brightness. 

2171
02:03:27,700 --> 02:03:31,900
This might seem like me a 
bookkeeping, but it's crucial to

2172
02:03:31,900 --> 02:03:34,000
understand how the heavens 
change. 

2173
02:03:34,000 --> 02:03:38,100
You first need to know their 
normal state, Only with precise 

2174
02:03:38,100 --> 02:03:40,400
catalogs. 
Can you detect phenomena like 

2175
02:03:40,400 --> 02:03:46,100
Novi new stars that appear when 
none existed before or track 

2176
02:03:46,100 --> 02:03:50,300
subtle changes in planetary 
positions, the geometric models 

2177
02:03:50,300 --> 02:03:53,400
you're developing represent 
Humanities first serious 

2178
02:03:53,400 --> 02:03:55,400
attempts. 
At explaining Celestial 

2179
02:03:55,400 --> 02:03:58,400
mechanics. 
You describe the cosmos as a 

2180
02:03:58,408 --> 02:04:01,900
series of nested spheres. 
Each carrying different, 

2181
02:04:01,900 --> 02:04:05,200
celestial objects, all rotating 
around Earth at the center. 

2182
02:04:05,200 --> 02:04:10,700
It's wrong in most details, the 
approaches sound, create a 

2183
02:04:10,700 --> 02:04:14,500
mathematical model tested 
against observations and refine 

2184
02:04:14,500 --> 02:04:17,700
it when discrepancies appear. 
This is science. 

2185
02:04:17,700 --> 02:04:20,900
Even if the specific 
conclusions, will later be 

2186
02:04:20,900 --> 02:04:23,700
overturned. 
Your particularly interested in 

2187
02:04:23,700 --> 02:04:29,100
planetary motion, the five 
visible planets Mercury, Venus 

2188
02:04:29,100 --> 02:04:34,000
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn wander
Among the Stars in ways. 

2189
02:04:34,000 --> 02:04:38,200
That simple circular motion. 
Can't explain Mars, occasionally

2190
02:04:38,200 --> 02:04:41,900
appears to stop move backward, 
then resume its normal 

2191
02:04:41,900 --> 02:04:45,100
Direction. 
How can this be if planets? 

2192
02:04:45,100 --> 02:04:50,000
Move on simple circles? 
Your solution involves epicycles

2193
02:04:50,000 --> 02:04:55,000
small circles who centers travel
along larger circles, a planet 

2194
02:04:55,000 --> 02:04:58,600
moves along its epicycle while 
the epicycle center moves, along

2195
02:04:58,600 --> 02:05:02,500
a larger circle around Earth. 
With the right combination of 

2196
02:05:02,500 --> 02:05:06,300
circles, moving at the right 
speed, you can match observed, 

2197
02:05:06,300 --> 02:05:10,200
planetary motions quite. 
Well, the model is complicated, 

2198
02:05:10,200 --> 02:05:13,900
requiring, multiple Epistles for
some planets but it works. 

2199
02:05:13,900 --> 02:05:17,500
It predicts where planets will 
appear in the sky months or 

2200
02:05:17,500 --> 02:05:20,700
years in advance. 
This model will dominate 

2201
02:05:20,700 --> 02:05:24,900
astronomy for over 1,000 years, 
not because people are stubborn 

2202
02:05:24,900 --> 02:05:29,300
or ignorant, but because it's 
genuinely useful, it predicts 

2203
02:05:29,300 --> 02:05:33,500
Celestial phenomena accurately 
enough and navigation, calendar,

2204
02:05:33,500 --> 02:05:35,700
making and other practical 
purposes. 

2205
02:05:35,700 --> 02:05:38,900
The fact that it's based on 
incorrect, assumptions about 

2206
02:05:38,900 --> 02:05:41,600
Earth, and Trilogy doesn't 
matter for prediction. 

2207
02:05:42,400 --> 02:05:45,800
A wrong model that works is more
useful than no model at all. 

2208
02:05:45,800 --> 02:05:48,400
But something else is happening 
in your work. 

2209
02:05:48,400 --> 02:05:51,500
That transcends, any specific 
model or measurement? 

2210
02:05:52,700 --> 02:05:55,800
Your establishing the principle 
that the Universe operates 

2211
02:05:55,800 --> 02:06:00,000
according to mathematical laws, 
discoverable through reason and 

2212
02:06:00,000 --> 02:06:02,300
observation. 
The heavens aren't merely 

2213
02:06:02,300 --> 02:06:05,200
mysterious or Divine their 
comprehensible. 

2214
02:06:05,200 --> 02:06:09,200
They follow rules. 
Those rules can be written down,

2215
02:06:09,200 --> 02:06:14,000
calculated and predicted. 
This idea more than any 

2216
02:06:14,000 --> 02:06:18,000
particular Discovery is your 
culture's greatest contribution 

2217
02:06:18,000 --> 02:06:21,500
to astronomy as evening Falls 
and you finally leave the 

2218
02:06:21,500 --> 02:06:23,700
library. 
You walk out into the 

2219
02:06:23,700 --> 02:06:28,900
Mediterranean night The stars 
are emerging the same stars that

2220
02:06:28,900 --> 02:06:33,000
I Sage Hunters watched. 
That Babylonian priests tracked 

2221
02:06:33,000 --> 02:06:36,800
and that Polynesian Navigators 
followed, but you see them 

2222
02:06:36,800 --> 02:06:39,900
differently now, you don't just 
observe them. 

2223
02:06:39,900 --> 02:06:43,400
You measure them. 
You don't merely note their 

2224
02:06:43,400 --> 02:06:47,200
patterns, you create 
mathematical models to explain 

2225
02:06:47,200 --> 02:06:50,500
those patterns. 
You've transformed them from 

2226
02:06:50,500 --> 02:06:54,100
objects of wonder, in to objects
of study. 

2227
02:06:54,100 --> 02:06:57,200
The transformation isn't 
complete, of course. 

2228
02:06:57,200 --> 02:06:59,400
Many of your measurements are 
rough. 

2229
02:06:59,400 --> 02:07:03,300
Many of your models are wrong 
and many questions remain 

2230
02:07:03,300 --> 02:07:06,800
unanswerable with your current 
tools that you've established 

2231
02:07:06,800 --> 02:07:09,200
something. 
Crucial the project of 

2232
02:07:09,200 --> 02:07:12,300
understanding the cosmos through
mathematics and systematic 

2233
02:07:12,300 --> 02:07:15,500
observation. 
You show that human reason can 

2234
02:07:15,500 --> 02:07:19,400
grapple with Celestial phenomena
that the Apparently unreachable 

2235
02:07:19,400 --> 02:07:22,300
can be measured. 
And that Mysteries can become 

2236
02:07:22,300 --> 02:07:26,300
mathematics somewhere in your 
calculations and models buried 

2237
02:07:26,300 --> 02:07:30,400
in geometric, diagrams and 
numerical tables lie, the seeds 

2238
02:07:30,400 --> 02:07:33,200
of Revelation that won't flower 
for centuries. 

2239
02:07:34,200 --> 02:07:37,600
Your work on Stellar positions, 
will eventually prove Earth 

2240
02:07:37,600 --> 02:07:40,300
moves. 
Your geometric techniques will 

2241
02:07:40,300 --> 02:07:43,000
help demonstrate the vast scale 
of the cosmos. 

2242
02:07:43,900 --> 02:07:48,000
Your insistence that observation
must match Theory will become 

2243
02:07:48,000 --> 02:07:52,500
the foundation of the scientific
method, but tonight you're 

2244
02:07:52,500 --> 02:07:55,500
simply satisfied to have added a
few more measurements to 

2245
02:07:55,500 --> 02:07:58,400
Humanities growing understanding
of the heavens. 

2246
02:07:59,400 --> 02:08:04,300
Stars shine on indifferent your 
calculations but you've measured

2247
02:08:04,300 --> 02:08:07,200
their positions with 
unprecedented Precision. 

2248
02:08:07,200 --> 02:08:11,900
You've turned skywards mystery 
into Earthly mathematics, you've

2249
02:08:11,900 --> 02:08:15,800
continued, the long journey from
one to understanding and that 

2250
02:08:15,800 --> 02:08:20,000
journey is far from over. 
Your honor Rooftop in Padua, 

2251
02:08:20,000 --> 02:08:24,500
Italy, and the year is 16009 in 
your hands. 

2252
02:08:24,500 --> 02:08:27,600
You hold an instrument that will
change human understanding of 

2253
02:08:27,600 --> 02:08:29,900
the cosmos more profoundly than 
anything. 

2254
02:08:29,900 --> 02:08:33,900
Since the invention of 
mathematics itself, it's a tube 

2255
02:08:33,900 --> 02:08:36,600
roughly three feet, long fitted 
with carefully. 

2256
02:08:36,600 --> 02:08:40,200
Ground lenses as a teacher and 
capable of magnifying distant 

2257
02:08:40,200 --> 02:08:45,000
objects, approximately 20 times 
you call it a telescope from 

2258
02:08:45,000 --> 02:08:48,900
Greek Roots, meaning fasting. 
And tonight, you're about to 

2259
02:08:48,900 --> 02:08:52,700
turn it towards the sky for 
perhaps the hundredth time, each

2260
02:08:52,700 --> 02:08:56,100
session revealing something new 
that contradicts centuries of 

2261
02:08:56,100 --> 02:08:59,700
accepted truth. 
The device itself is barely a 

2262
02:08:59,700 --> 02:09:03,900
year old, at least in its 
current form Dutch, spectacle 

2263
02:09:03,900 --> 02:09:07,200
makers, discovered that certain 
combinations of lenses could 

2264
02:09:07,200 --> 02:09:11,200
magnify distant objects and when
you heard about this, you 

2265
02:09:11,200 --> 02:09:13,300
immediately recognized its 
potential. 

2266
02:09:13,300 --> 02:09:17,900
You've spent months, grinding 
lenses, testing configurations, 

2267
02:09:17,900 --> 02:09:21,300
and improving the design until 
you achieved magnifications. 

2268
02:09:21,300 --> 02:09:23,300
Far beyond what the Dutch 
achieved. 

2269
02:09:24,200 --> 02:09:28,000
Where they saw a novelty, you 
saw a revolution your 

2270
02:09:28,000 --> 02:09:30,300
colleagues. 
At the University of Padua were 

2271
02:09:30,300 --> 02:09:34,000
initially skeptical. 
Some refused to even look 

2272
02:09:34,000 --> 02:09:36,200
through the device. 
Insisting that. 

2273
02:09:36,200 --> 02:09:39,800
Anything seen through glass 
lenses must be an artifact or 

2274
02:09:39,800 --> 02:09:43,000
Illusion rather than reality, 
others looked. 

2275
02:09:43,000 --> 02:09:47,100
But dismissed what they saw 
unable to reconcile observations

2276
02:09:47,100 --> 02:09:49,900
with their understanding of how 
the cosmos should work. 

2277
02:09:50,800 --> 02:09:53,900
But you've persisted and your 
observations have become 

2278
02:09:53,900 --> 02:09:58,100
increasingly difficult to 
dismiss to night your focusing 

2279
02:09:58,100 --> 02:10:00,900
on Jupiter. 
You've been watching this planet

2280
02:10:00,900 --> 02:10:04,100
for weeks now and what you've 
discovered is staggering. 

2281
02:10:04,100 --> 02:10:09,600
Jupiter has moons at least four 
of them visible as Tiny Points 

2282
02:10:09,600 --> 02:10:12,800
of Light arranged in a line 
extending from the planets 

2283
02:10:12,800 --> 02:10:17,500
bright disk Night by Night. 
You've watched, these moons 

2284
02:10:17,500 --> 02:10:22,100
change position orbiting Jupiter
exactly as the moon orbits 

2285
02:10:22,100 --> 02:10:24,800
Earth. 
This is revolutionary because it

2286
02:10:24,800 --> 02:10:27,600
proves that not everything in 
the heavens orbits Earth. 

2287
02:10:28,300 --> 02:10:31,500
Here is a Celestial body with 
its own satellites. 

2288
02:10:31,500 --> 02:10:34,600
A miniature planetary system 
that demolishes the 

2289
02:10:34,600 --> 02:10:39,700
earth-centered cosmos accepted 
since ancient times you've been 

2290
02:10:39,708 --> 02:10:43,300
keeping detailed records 
sketching Jupiter's moons in 

2291
02:10:43,300 --> 02:10:47,000
different positions, each night 
and calculating their orbital 

2292
02:10:47,000 --> 02:10:50,200
periods. 
The innermost Moon completes its

2293
02:10:50,200 --> 02:10:55,100
orbit in roughly 42 hours, the 
outermost takes about 16 days. 

2294
02:10:56,100 --> 02:10:58,200
A Precision of their movements 
is beautiful. 

2295
02:10:59,000 --> 02:11:02,000
Their following the same 
mathematical laws that govern 

2296
02:11:02,000 --> 02:11:06,200
the moon's orbit around Earth. 
Suggesting Universal principles,

2297
02:11:06,200 --> 02:11:10,500
rather than special cases. 
But Jupiter's moons are your 

2298
02:11:10,500 --> 02:11:14,600
only Discovery. 
The moon Earth's moon has been 

2299
02:11:14,600 --> 02:11:18,500
equally revelatory Through your 
telescope, the smooth. 

2300
02:11:18,500 --> 02:11:22,900
Perfect, sphere described by 
ancient philosophers transforms 

2301
02:11:22,900 --> 02:11:25,900
into a rough mountainous world. 
You see? 

2302
02:11:25,900 --> 02:11:29,000
Craters, valleys and towering 
Peaks. 

2303
02:11:29,000 --> 02:11:32,700
That castle Long Shadows across,
Luna Plains, You've even 

2304
02:11:32,708 --> 02:11:35,900
measured the height of some 
mountains by calculating Shadow 

2305
02:11:35,900 --> 02:11:38,300
lengths finding Peaks that 
rival. 

2306
02:11:38,300 --> 02:11:41,500
Earth's highest Summits. 
The moon isn't a perfect 

2307
02:11:41,500 --> 02:11:44,600
celestial object made of 
quintessence as Aristotle 

2308
02:11:44,600 --> 02:11:47,800
claimed. 
It's a world is physical and a 

2309
02:11:47,800 --> 02:11:51,900
regular as Earth itself. 
Venus has provided more evidence

2310
02:11:51,900 --> 02:11:55,400
against earth-centered models 
through your telescope. 

2311
02:11:55,400 --> 02:11:58,600
You've observed that Venus goes 
through phases, like the moon. 

2312
02:11:58,600 --> 02:12:02,400
Sometimes appearing as a 
crescent, sometimes, as a 

2313
02:12:02,400 --> 02:12:06,100
gibbous shape and sometimes 
nearly full, this only makes 

2314
02:12:06,100 --> 02:12:09,100
sense. 
If Venus orbits the sun passing 

2315
02:12:09,100 --> 02:12:12,400
between us and the sun, when it 
appears as a crescent and moving

2316
02:12:12,400 --> 02:12:16,100
beyond the sun, when it appears 
full in an earth-centered 

2317
02:12:16,100 --> 02:12:19,900
system, where Venus orbits 
between Earth and the Sun, it 

2318
02:12:19,900 --> 02:12:21,800
should only ever appear as a 
crescent. 

2319
02:12:22,900 --> 02:12:26,300
The phases of Venus are direct 
evidence for a sun-centered 

2320
02:12:26,300 --> 02:12:30,500
solar system, you've also been 
observing the sun itself using 

2321
02:12:30,500 --> 02:12:34,800
projection methods to avoid 
damaging your eyes The sun, 

2322
02:12:34,800 --> 02:12:38,600
supposedly the most perfect 
celestial object is marked with 

2323
02:12:38,600 --> 02:12:41,700
spots. 
Dark blemishes that appear 

2324
02:12:41,700 --> 02:12:47,400
change shape and disappear over 
days or weeks by tracking these 

2325
02:12:47,400 --> 02:12:49,800
spots. 
You've determined that the sun 

2326
02:12:49,800 --> 02:12:53,900
rotates completing one 
revolution, approximately every 

2327
02:12:53,900 --> 02:12:59,300
27 days, This rotation combined,
with the imperfect nature of 

2328
02:12:59,300 --> 02:13:03,700
sunspots further demolishes, the
idea of celestial Perfection, 

2329
02:13:03,700 --> 02:13:06,400
the Milky Way has revealed its 
Secret. 

2330
02:13:07,300 --> 02:13:10,800
To the naked eye, it appears as 
a hazy band of light across the 

2331
02:13:10,800 --> 02:13:15,500
sky through your telescope. 
It resolves into thousands upon 

2332
02:13:15,500 --> 02:13:20,500
thousands of individual Stars 
two distant and numerous to see 

2333
02:13:20,500 --> 02:13:23,500
separately without 
magnification, this suggests, 

2334
02:13:23,500 --> 02:13:28,100
the universe contains far more 
stars than anyone imagined Not 

2335
02:13:28,100 --> 02:13:32,000
the few thousand visible to the 
naked eye, but potentially, 

2336
02:13:32,000 --> 02:13:37,200
millions or billions extending 
far beyond what early 

2337
02:13:37,200 --> 02:13:40,900
astronomers thought possible. 
Each of these observations 

2338
02:13:40,900 --> 02:13:42,900
contradicts established 
Doctrine. 

2339
02:13:43,600 --> 02:13:48,200
The church is cosmology based on
Aristotle and Ptolemy places 

2340
02:13:48,200 --> 02:13:52,800
Earth at the center of a small 
ordered Universe with perfect 

2341
02:13:52,800 --> 02:13:56,700
celestial bodies. 
Moving on perfect circles, your 

2342
02:13:56,700 --> 02:14:00,900
observation suggests a vastly 
larger universe within perfect 

2343
02:14:00,900 --> 02:14:05,900
celestial bodies where Earth is 
not Central You're not trying to

2344
02:14:05,900 --> 02:14:10,000
challenge religious Authority, 
you'll simply reporting what you

2345
02:14:10,000 --> 02:14:14,600
see, but the implications are 
impossible to ignore the 

2346
02:14:14,600 --> 02:14:17,300
resistance you face isn't 
entirely unreasonable. 

2347
02:14:17,300 --> 02:14:22,400
Your telescope is new technology
and its reliability isn't yet 

2348
02:14:22,400 --> 02:14:25,600
proven. 
How can anyone be certain that 

2349
02:14:25,600 --> 02:14:29,800
what appears in the telescope 
truly represents reality rather 

2350
02:14:29,800 --> 02:14:32,700
than optical illusions created 
by lenses? 

2351
02:14:32,700 --> 02:14:37,800
Your response is pragmatic The 
telescope accurately shows 

2352
02:14:37,800 --> 02:14:42,500
distant terrestrial objects. 
Ships that are below the Horizon

2353
02:14:42,500 --> 02:14:47,100
and buildings in distant cities.
If it works. 

2354
02:14:47,100 --> 02:14:50,400
Reliably for Earthly 
observations, why should 

2355
02:14:50,400 --> 02:14:53,000
Celestial observations be 
different? 

2356
02:14:53,000 --> 02:14:57,000
You're also making your findings
public publishing your 

2357
02:14:57,000 --> 02:15:00,300
observations in language 
accessible to educated readers. 

2358
02:15:00,300 --> 02:15:05,600
Not just in Latin for Scholars. 
Your book, sidereus nuncius, The

2359
02:15:05,600 --> 02:15:09,300
Starry Messenger, spreads your 
discoveries across Europe within

2360
02:15:09,300 --> 02:15:12,900
months other observers with 
telescope's, confirm your 

2361
02:15:12,900 --> 02:15:16,300
findings. 
Jupiter's moons can be seen by 

2362
02:15:16,300 --> 02:15:18,500
anyone with adequate 
magnification. 

2363
02:15:18,500 --> 02:15:23,000
The phases of Venus are 
independently verified and the 

2364
02:15:23,000 --> 02:15:25,700
moon's, mountains are 
photographed with increasing 

2365
02:15:25,700 --> 02:15:30,800
detail as telescope technology. 
Improves cumulative weight of 

2366
02:15:30,808 --> 02:15:34,800
these observations forces, a 
revolution in thought, The 

2367
02:15:34,800 --> 02:15:38,500
cosmos is not small ordered and 
geocentric. 

2368
02:15:38,500 --> 02:15:43,100
Its vast. 
Perhaps infinite with Earth is 

2369
02:15:43,100 --> 02:15:46,700
just one planet among several 
orbiting and ordinary star. 

2370
02:15:46,700 --> 02:15:50,600
This Insight is simultaneously 
humbling and exhilarating. 

2371
02:15:51,500 --> 02:15:55,500
Humanity has been demoted from 
the center of creation, but in 

2372
02:15:55,500 --> 02:15:59,500
exchange, we've discovered a far
grander Universe than anyone 

2373
02:15:59,500 --> 02:16:02,700
imagined as you pack up your 
telescope for the night. 

2374
02:16:02,700 --> 02:16:05,800
You reflect on how one simple 
device. 

2375
02:16:05,800 --> 02:16:10,300
A tube with lenses has 
demolished Millennia of accepted

2376
02:16:10,300 --> 02:16:12,900
truth. 
The ancient Greeks would have 

2377
02:16:12,900 --> 02:16:14,800
given anything for this 
technology. 

2378
02:16:14,800 --> 02:16:18,300
They had the mathematical 
sophistication to understand 

2379
02:16:18,300 --> 02:16:21,500
what you're seeing but they 
lacked the tools to see it. 

2380
02:16:21,500 --> 02:16:25,000
The observations that would have
resolved their debates about 

2381
02:16:25,000 --> 02:16:27,400
Earth's motion were always there
in the sky. 

2382
02:16:28,300 --> 02:16:30,700
Invisible. 
Only because human eyes could 

2383
02:16:30,700 --> 02:16:34,500
not detect them without help 
this raises a humbling question.

2384
02:16:35,400 --> 02:16:38,700
What else is in the sky? 
That you can't see even with 

2385
02:16:38,700 --> 02:16:42,400
your telescope? 
Your instrument magnifies 20 

2386
02:16:42,400 --> 02:16:46,799
times, which is impressive, but 
surely this isn't the limit of 

2387
02:16:46,799 --> 02:16:49,799
what's possible future observers
with better. 

2388
02:16:49,799 --> 02:16:52,799
Telescopes will undoubtedly see 
things you're missing. 

2389
02:16:53,600 --> 02:16:56,400
How much larger is the universe 
than what you can see. 

2390
02:16:57,400 --> 02:17:00,700
How many more discoveries await?
Merely better technology. 

2391
02:17:00,700 --> 02:17:04,700
You don't know it yet. 
But your telescope represents 

2392
02:17:04,700 --> 02:17:08,299
the first of many technological 
leaps that will progressively 

2393
02:17:08,299 --> 02:17:12,200
reveal the cosmos is true 
nature, better lenses, then 

2394
02:17:12,200 --> 02:17:16,100
reflecting telescope's, then 
photography then spectroscopy, 

2395
02:17:16,100 --> 02:17:20,000
then radio astronomy, then 
space-based telescope's free 

2396
02:17:20,000 --> 02:17:24,400
from atmospheric distortion. 
Each advancement will reveal new

2397
02:17:24,400 --> 02:17:29,600
phenomena answer old questions 
and raise new Mysteries. 

2398
02:17:29,600 --> 02:17:33,500
Your seven inch telescope is 
primitive compared to what's 

2399
02:17:33,500 --> 02:17:37,500
coming, but it's sophisticated 
enough to begin the revolution. 

2400
02:17:38,400 --> 02:17:42,700
The stars shine overhead. 
Now known to be distant Sons 

2401
02:17:42,700 --> 02:17:45,200
rather than lights on a 
celestial sphere. 

2402
02:17:45,200 --> 02:17:49,000
The planets visible as bright 
points to the naked. 

2403
02:17:49,000 --> 02:17:52,299
Eye are revealed through your 
telescope as worlds. 

2404
02:17:53,200 --> 02:17:58,200
Jupiter with its Cloud bands and
moons Saturn with its mysterious

2405
02:17:58,200 --> 02:18:01,900
elongated shape. 
You can't quite resolved, the 

2406
02:18:01,907 --> 02:18:03,500
rings with your current 
telescope. 

2407
02:18:03,500 --> 02:18:06,799
But you know something, odd 
extends from the planet's sides 

2408
02:18:06,799 --> 02:18:09,299
and Mars with hints of surface 
features. 

2409
02:18:09,299 --> 02:18:11,700
You've lived through one of 
History's. 

2410
02:18:11,700 --> 02:18:15,299
Great turning points. 
The moment when Humanity first 

2411
02:18:15,299 --> 02:18:19,600
saw the cosmos as it truly is 
rather than as we imagined it 

2412
02:18:19,600 --> 02:18:23,000
must be the implications will 
take generations to fully 

2413
02:18:23,000 --> 02:18:25,799
understand but the basic fact is
clear. 

2414
02:18:26,500 --> 02:18:30,700
We are far smaller and the 
universe far larger than anyone 

2415
02:18:30,700 --> 02:18:34,200
dreamed. 
And that's wonderful because it 

2416
02:18:34,200 --> 02:18:38,500
means there's so much more to 
discover so many more Mysteries 

2417
02:18:38,500 --> 02:18:42,600
waiting in the dark between the 
Stars, you're working in a 

2418
02:18:42,600 --> 02:18:48,600
Cambridge office and the year is
approximately 1726 papers cover 

2419
02:18:48,600 --> 02:18:52,500
your desk calculations diagrams 
and observations from 

2420
02:18:52,500 --> 02:18:55,900
astronomers across Europe. 
Your attempting something that 

2421
02:18:55,900 --> 02:18:57,900
many colleagues consider 
impossible. 

2422
02:18:57,900 --> 02:19:01,500
You're trying to calculate the 
distance to a comet using 

2423
02:19:01,500 --> 02:19:06,000
nothing but geometric principles
and observations from multiple 

2424
02:19:06,000 --> 02:19:09,400
locations. 
If you succeed, you'll prove 

2425
02:19:09,400 --> 02:19:12,299
that comets are distant 
celestial objects, rather than 

2426
02:19:12,299 --> 02:19:16,500
atmospheric phenomena and you'll
demonstrate that mathematics can

2427
02:19:16,500 --> 02:19:19,900
measure even the seemingly 
unmeasurable, your name is 

2428
02:19:19,900 --> 02:19:23,500
Edmond Halley and you've 
dedicated much of your career to

2429
02:19:23,500 --> 02:19:25,299
understanding Celestial 
mechanics. 

2430
02:19:25,299 --> 02:19:29,900
You've been Fascinated by 
comets, those mysterious objects

2431
02:19:29,900 --> 02:19:34,100
that appear unpredictably Blaze 
across the sky for weeks or 

2432
02:19:34,100 --> 02:19:38,400
months, then vanish Aristotle. 
Believed they were atmospheric 

2433
02:19:38,400 --> 02:19:42,799
disturbances, whether phenomena 
rather than celestial objects, 

2434
02:19:43,500 --> 02:19:47,400
This view persisted for 
centuries, but you're convinced 

2435
02:19:47,400 --> 02:19:51,300
Aristotle was wrong. 
The evidence is in the geometry.

2436
02:19:51,300 --> 02:19:55,400
You have observations of comets 
from different locations on 

2437
02:19:55,400 --> 02:19:58,700
Earth, measured carefully by 
skilled astronomers. 

2438
02:19:58,700 --> 02:20:02,500
If comets were atmospheric 
phenomena relatively close to 

2439
02:20:02,500 --> 02:20:06,600
Earth, observers at different 
locations, should see them at 

2440
02:20:06,600 --> 02:20:09,700
noticeably different positions, 
against the background Stars, 

2441
02:20:10,600 --> 02:20:14,200
This is Parallax, this same 
principle that makes nearby 

2442
02:20:14,200 --> 02:20:18,300
objects appear to shift when you
close one eye and open the other

2443
02:20:18,300 --> 02:20:22,400
but commentary Parallax. 
When measurable at all is Tiny, 

2444
02:20:22,400 --> 02:20:25,800
suggesting these objects are 
extremely distant. 

2445
02:20:26,700 --> 02:20:30,500
Moreover, you've been studying 
historical records of comet, 

2446
02:20:30,500 --> 02:20:34,800
sightings comparing their paths 
across the sky, their 

2447
02:20:34,800 --> 02:20:38,200
appearance, and their behavior, 
and you've noticed something 

2448
02:20:38,200 --> 02:20:42,200
remarkable. 
Comets that appeared in 1500 and

2449
02:20:42,200 --> 02:20:48,800
3167 and 1682. 
Followed nearly identical paths.

2450
02:20:48,800 --> 02:20:52,900
They appeared in similar regions
of the sky moved in similar 

2451
02:20:52,900 --> 02:20:56,300
Direction's, and brightened and 
Faded in similar patterns. 

2452
02:20:56,300 --> 02:21:00,500
What if these were three 
different comets but the same 

2453
02:21:00,500 --> 02:21:05,200
Comet returning periodically The
mathematics support this 

2454
02:21:05,200 --> 02:21:09,800
hypothesis using Newton's laws 
of motion and gravitation, which

2455
02:21:09,800 --> 02:21:13,500
your friend Isaac published, 40 
years ago, you can calculate 

2456
02:21:13,500 --> 02:21:17,000
orbital paths for objects, 
moving through the solar system.

2457
02:21:17,000 --> 02:21:21,800
When you apply these 
calculations to the 1682 Comet, 

2458
02:21:21,800 --> 02:21:25,300
assuming it's in a highly 
elliptical orbit around the sun,

2459
02:21:25,300 --> 02:21:30,000
you get an orbital period of 
roughly 75 to 76 years. 

2460
02:21:30,000 --> 02:21:37,500
Count back 76 years from 1682 
and you reach 69007 count back 

2461
02:21:37,500 --> 02:21:41,700
another 76 years and you reach 
150031. 

2462
02:21:41,700 --> 02:21:45,500
The timing matches the 
historical sightings almost 

2463
02:21:45,500 --> 02:21:48,000
perfectly. 
This means you can make a 

2464
02:21:48,000 --> 02:21:51,000
prediction if your hypothesis is
correct. 

2465
02:21:51,000 --> 02:21:55,500
This Comet should return around 
1758 or 1759. 

2466
02:21:55,500 --> 02:22:01,000
You'll be long dead by their 
already in your sevens but the 

2467
02:22:01,000 --> 02:22:03,200
comet will either appear as 
predicted. 

2468
02:22:03,700 --> 02:22:07,900
Confirming your calculations or 
it won't proving you wrong. 

2469
02:22:07,900 --> 02:22:11,600
Either way, the prediction is 
testable which makes it 

2470
02:22:11,600 --> 02:22:13,800
scientific rather than mere 
speculation. 

2471
02:22:14,800 --> 02:22:17,200
What you're doing? 
Represents a new kind of 

2472
02:22:17,200 --> 02:22:20,600
astronomy. 
Earlier, observers watch the sky

2473
02:22:20,600 --> 02:22:24,300
and recorded what they saw, they
identified patterns and made 

2474
02:22:24,300 --> 02:22:28,000
predictions based on those 
patterns, but their predictions 

2475
02:22:28,000 --> 02:22:31,900
were essentially extrapolations,
assuming the future will 

2476
02:22:31,900 --> 02:22:34,700
resemble the past. 
You're doing something 

2477
02:22:34,700 --> 02:22:39,200
different, you're using physical
laws, mathematical models and 

2478
02:22:39,200 --> 02:22:42,700
theoretical understanding to 
predict phenomena that haven't 

2479
02:22:42,700 --> 02:22:46,000
been observed yet. 
You're not just recording the 

2480
02:22:46,000 --> 02:22:50,900
universe, your calculating it. 
Newton's work made this possible

2481
02:22:50,900 --> 02:22:55,200
his laws of motion and Universal
gravitational provided for the 

2482
02:22:55,200 --> 02:22:59,000
first time, a unified framework 
for understanding, both 

2483
02:22:59,000 --> 02:23:01,100
Celestial and terrestrial 
mechanics. 

2484
02:23:01,100 --> 02:23:05,100
The same force that pulls an 
apple downward pulls the moon 

2485
02:23:05,100 --> 02:23:07,500
toward Earth and Earth towards 
the Sun. 

2486
02:23:08,400 --> 02:23:11,900
The same mathematical laws that 
described projectile motion on 

2487
02:23:11,900 --> 02:23:15,100
Earth described planetary, 
orbits in the heavens. 

2488
02:23:15,100 --> 02:23:20,200
This unification is profound. 
It means the universe operates 

2489
02:23:20,200 --> 02:23:24,400
according to comprehensible 
Universal principles rather than

2490
02:23:24,400 --> 02:23:26,800
separate rules for different 
domains. 

2491
02:23:27,800 --> 02:23:30,400
You've applied these principles 
to various problems. 

2492
02:23:30,400 --> 02:23:36,300
You calculated the path of the 
1682 Comet determining its 

2493
02:23:36,300 --> 02:23:39,000
orbital elements with 
unprecedented Precision. 

2494
02:23:39,000 --> 02:23:42,700
You've worked on improving 
tables of planetary positions, 

2495
02:23:42,700 --> 02:23:47,600
incorporating perturbations the 
subtle gravitational influences 

2496
02:23:47,600 --> 02:23:51,600
that planets exert on each 
other, causing small deviations 

2497
02:23:51,600 --> 02:23:54,600
from perfect. 
Elliptical orbits, you've 

2498
02:23:54,600 --> 02:23:57,600
studied the Moon's motion 
wrestling with the three-body 

2499
02:23:57,600 --> 02:24:00,200
problem. 
The mathematical challenge of 

2500
02:24:00,200 --> 02:24:04,000
precisely calculating Health, 3 
gravatt, and interacting objects

2501
02:24:04,000 --> 02:24:07,900
move The moon problem is 
particularly vexing. 

2502
02:24:07,900 --> 02:24:12,700
The moon's orbit is influenced, 
not just by Earth, but also by 

2503
02:24:12,700 --> 02:24:16,400
the sun and the combined 
gravitational effects create 

2504
02:24:16,400 --> 02:24:20,200
orbital irregularities that are 
devilishly difficult to 

2505
02:24:20,200 --> 02:24:23,500
calculate Newton himself 
struggle with the Luna motion. 

2506
02:24:23,500 --> 02:24:26,900
And the problem won't be fully 
sold for another Century. 

2507
02:24:26,900 --> 02:24:31,100
But you've made progress 
improving predictions enough 

2508
02:24:31,100 --> 02:24:34,100
that Navigators can use your 
lunar tables, to determine 

2509
02:24:34,100 --> 02:24:38,500
longitude at sea, A practical, 
application of celestial 

2510
02:24:38,500 --> 02:24:42,200
mechanics that saves lives and 
enables exploration. 

2511
02:24:42,200 --> 02:24:47,300
You've also been thinking about 
Stellar distances, the stars are

2512
02:24:47,300 --> 02:24:49,500
clearly far more distant than 
planets. 

2513
02:24:50,100 --> 02:24:52,700
They show no measurable 
Parallax, even from 

2514
02:24:52,700 --> 02:24:55,000
observations, made six months 
apart. 

2515
02:24:55,000 --> 02:24:58,600
When Earth is on opposite sides 
of its orbit around the sun. 

2516
02:24:58,600 --> 02:25:02,600
This means Stellar distances 
must be enormous compared to 

2517
02:25:02,600 --> 02:25:05,900
solar system scales But, how 
enormous? 

2518
02:25:06,700 --> 02:25:10,100
Can these distances be measured 
at all you suspect? 

2519
02:25:10,100 --> 02:25:14,000
They can eventually though, not 
with current instruments. 

2520
02:25:14,000 --> 02:25:17,600
If telescope's become powerful 
enough and measurements. 

2521
02:25:17,600 --> 02:25:20,800
Precise enough stellar parallax 
should become detectable. 

2522
02:25:20,800 --> 02:25:24,700
The math is straightforward. 
Measure a star's position in 

2523
02:25:24,700 --> 02:25:27,100
summer measuring again in 
winter. 

2524
02:25:27,100 --> 02:25:30,600
When Earth has moved to the 
opposite side of its orbit and 

2525
02:25:30,600 --> 02:25:34,300
calculate the distance based on 
the apparent shift, the 

2526
02:25:34,300 --> 02:25:37,200
challenge is that even the 
nearest stars are so distant 

2527
02:25:37,200 --> 02:25:40,900
that their Parallax is measured 
in fractions of an ark second 

2528
02:25:41,800 --> 02:25:43,700
Angles. 
So small, they require 

2529
02:25:43,700 --> 02:25:47,000
instruments far more precise 
than what's currently available 

2530
02:25:47,000 --> 02:25:50,500
but your confident that future 
astronomers will make these 

2531
02:25:50,500 --> 02:25:54,900
measurements technology. 
Improves telescopes become more 

2532
02:25:54,900 --> 02:25:59,300
powerful measurement techniques 
become more refined what's 

2533
02:25:59,300 --> 02:26:03,700
impossible to becomes routine 
tomorrow, the Stars distances 

2534
02:26:03,700 --> 02:26:07,800
will eventually be known That 
happens, Humanity. 

2535
02:26:07,800 --> 02:26:11,900
Will finally understand the true
scale of the cosmos as you 

2536
02:26:11,900 --> 02:26:15,000
review your calculations. 
One more time, checking for 

2537
02:26:15,000 --> 02:26:18,900
errors, you can consider how far
astronomy has come in, just a 

2538
02:26:18,900 --> 02:26:22,300
few Generations. 
When you were born telescope for

2539
02:26:22,300 --> 02:26:25,500
relatively new, the healing of 
centric model was still 

2540
02:26:25,500 --> 02:26:27,900
controversial and the physical 
laws. 

2541
02:26:27,900 --> 02:26:30,200
Governing Celestial motion were 
unknown. 

2542
02:26:30,200 --> 02:26:34,300
Now less than a century later. 
Your calculating Comet, orbits 

2543
02:26:34,300 --> 02:26:38,500
predicting future, appearances 
and treating the heavens as a 

2544
02:26:38,500 --> 02:26:42,100
domain subject to the same 
mathematical laws that govern 

2545
02:26:42,100 --> 02:26:45,500
Earthly phenomena. 
The transformational isn't 

2546
02:26:45,500 --> 02:26:48,100
complete. 
Many Mysteries remain. 

2547
02:26:48,900 --> 02:26:52,600
The nature of stars is unknown. 
Are they distant sons? 

2548
02:26:52,600 --> 02:26:57,100
And if so, how far away and how 
large the structure of the Milky

2549
02:26:57,100 --> 02:27:00,100
Way is unclear. 
Is it a flat disc? 

2550
02:27:00,100 --> 02:27:04,300
A sphere or something else? 
Entirely the possibility of 

2551
02:27:04,300 --> 02:27:06,500
other galaxies. 
Hasn't even been seriously 

2552
02:27:06,500 --> 02:27:10,600
considered most astronomers 
assumed more visible stars, 

2553
02:27:10,600 --> 02:27:14,500
belong to one unified system, 
but the methodology is now 

2554
02:27:14,500 --> 02:27:18,400
established You observe you 
measure you calculate you 

2555
02:27:18,400 --> 02:27:22,600
predict and you test. 
When predictions fail, you 

2556
02:27:22,600 --> 02:27:25,500
refine your models. 
When you phenomena are 

2557
02:27:25,500 --> 02:27:28,600
discovered, you incorporate them
into your framework. 

2558
02:27:28,600 --> 02:27:33,300
This is science and it's proving
extraordinarily powerful for 

2559
02:27:33,300 --> 02:27:37,200
understanding nature. 
Your comic prediction in 

2560
02:27:37,200 --> 02:27:41,900
particular feels like a gamble 
against mortality itself, your 

2561
02:27:41,900 --> 02:27:44,700
wagering that mathematics and 
physics can project forward 

2562
02:27:44,700 --> 02:27:49,700
decades into the future that the
universe is lawful enough, and 

2563
02:27:49,700 --> 02:27:52,200
that your understanding is 
complete enough to make 

2564
02:27:52,200 --> 02:27:55,800
predictions across time scales 
longer than human lifetimes. 

2565
02:27:55,800 --> 02:28:00,300
If you're right, and the comet 
returns when predicted, it will 

2566
02:28:00,300 --> 02:28:04,100
be one of science's, great 
triumphs, a demonstration that 

2567
02:28:04,100 --> 02:28:08,700
human reason can grasp Cosmic 
patterns and use them to predict

2568
02:28:08,700 --> 02:28:12,100
the unpredictable. 
You won't live to see it, but 

2569
02:28:12,100 --> 02:28:15,200
you'll content with that. 
You've done the work you've 

2570
02:28:15,200 --> 02:28:17,800
made. 
The calculation, the comet will 

2571
02:28:17,800 --> 02:28:20,200
either confirm your hypothesis 
or it won't. 

2572
02:28:20,200 --> 02:28:24,700
But either outcome advances 
knowledge and that ultimately is

2573
02:28:24,700 --> 02:28:28,500
what drives you not personal 
Glory or the satisfaction of 

2574
02:28:28,500 --> 02:28:32,000
being proven, right? 
A simple desire to understand 

2575
02:28:32,000 --> 02:28:35,800
how the universe works. 
The stars shine outside your 

2576
02:28:35,800 --> 02:28:39,900
window distant and mysterious 
but less mysterious than they 

2577
02:28:39,900 --> 02:28:42,700
were. 
Each generation appeals back 

2578
02:28:42,700 --> 02:28:47,000
another layer of cosmic mystery 
armed with better tools, better 

2579
02:28:47,000 --> 02:28:50,400
mathematics. 
And better understanding your 

2580
02:28:50,400 --> 02:28:54,600
generation has accomplished 
remarkable things, but you're 

2581
02:28:54,600 --> 02:28:58,800
certain future Generations will 
accomplish more The universe is 

2582
02:28:58,800 --> 02:29:04,300
vast complex and wonderful, and 
Humanity has barely begun to 

2583
02:29:04,300 --> 02:29:07,400
explore it. 
Your standing outside, the Dome 

2584
02:29:07,400 --> 02:29:10,900
of the Mount Wilson Observatory 
in California, and the year is 

2585
02:29:10,900 --> 02:29:16,600
1924 the Sunset hours ago and 
now the Milky Way stretches 

2586
02:29:16,600 --> 02:29:19,600
overhead in magnificent detail 
visible. 

2587
02:29:19,600 --> 02:29:22,900
Despite the growing light, 
pollution from Los Angeles in 

2588
02:29:22,900 --> 02:29:26,600
the valley below inside the Dome
behind you sits the hooker. 

2589
02:29:26,600 --> 02:29:29,800
Telescope 100 inches of 
reflecting mirror. 

2590
02:29:29,800 --> 02:29:34,000
The largest telescope in the 
world capable of gathering more 

2591
02:29:34,000 --> 02:29:37,600
light and seeing faint of 
objects than any instrument in 

2592
02:29:37,600 --> 02:29:41,200
human history. 
And tonight, you've used it to 

2593
02:29:41,200 --> 02:29:44,500
make a discovery that will 
fundamentally change Humanity's 

2594
02:29:44,500 --> 02:29:48,200
understanding of its place. 
In the cosmos, your name is 

2595
02:29:48,200 --> 02:29:52,300
Edwin Hubble and you've been 
photographing spiral nebulae. 

2596
02:29:53,000 --> 02:29:56,300
Those fuzzy spiral shape of 
objects scattered across the 

2597
02:29:56,300 --> 02:29:59,200
sky. 
Astronomers have debated their 

2598
02:29:59,200 --> 02:30:02,400
nature for years? 
Are they gas clouds within our 

2599
02:30:02,400 --> 02:30:05,400
own Galaxy, or they distant 
galaxies themselves? 

2600
02:30:05,400 --> 02:30:08,800
Separate Island, universes 
beyond the Milky Way? 

2601
02:30:09,800 --> 02:30:13,500
The debate has been Fierce with 
respected scientists on both 

2602
02:30:13,500 --> 02:30:16,500
sides, but you think you finally
settled it? 

2603
02:30:16,500 --> 02:30:19,900
You've been focusing on 
Andromeda the largest and 

2604
02:30:19,900 --> 02:30:23,700
brightest of the Spiral nebulae 
using the hooker telescopes 

2605
02:30:23,700 --> 02:30:26,400
light Gathering Power. 
You've been taking long 

2606
02:30:26,400 --> 02:30:30,300
exposure, photographs images 
that accumulate light over 

2607
02:30:30,300 --> 02:30:34,500
hours, revealing details, 
invisible to direct observation.

2608
02:30:34,500 --> 02:30:38,600
And in these photographs, you've
identified individual Stars 

2609
02:30:38,600 --> 02:30:42,600
within Andromeda, not just the 
bright blue white stars that 

2610
02:30:42,600 --> 02:30:47,100
Mark spiral arms, but specific 
types of variable Stars called 

2611
02:30:47,100 --> 02:30:51,400
Sophia's Sophia's are crucial 
because their brightness varies,

2612
02:30:51,400 --> 02:30:55,800
predictably pulsing brighter and
dimmer over periods ranging from

2613
02:30:55,800 --> 02:30:58,700
days to months. 
More importantly, there's a 

2614
02:30:58,700 --> 02:31:02,600
direct relationship between 
aphids period and its intrinsic 

2615
02:31:02,600 --> 02:31:05,600
brighteners. 
Longer period safes are 

2616
02:31:05,600 --> 02:31:08,200
inherently brighter than short 
period ones. 

2617
02:31:08,200 --> 02:31:12,800
This relationship was discovered
by Henry at 11:00 working with 

2618
02:31:12,800 --> 02:31:16,600
sapphires in the magellanic 
clouds and it provides a method 

2619
02:31:16,600 --> 02:31:20,600
for measuring Cosmic distances. 
Here's the beautiful logic. 

2620
02:31:21,400 --> 02:31:24,400
If you know a set feeds 
intrinsic brightness and can 

2621
02:31:24,400 --> 02:31:28,700
measure its apparent brightness 
you can calculate its distance. 

2622
02:31:28,700 --> 02:31:32,300
It's like seeing a light bulb 
and determining how far away it 

2623
02:31:32,300 --> 02:31:36,400
is by how dim it appears. 
If you know, it's 100 watt bulb,

2624
02:31:36,400 --> 02:31:39,500
you can tell whether it's 10 
feet away or 100 feet away by 

2625
02:31:39,500 --> 02:31:43,300
its apparent brightness, the 
Seafoods you found in Andromeda 

2626
02:31:43,300 --> 02:31:47,400
have periods, indicating their 
extremely luminous stars, yet 

2627
02:31:47,400 --> 02:31:49,800
they appear very faint in your 
photographs. 

2628
02:31:49,800 --> 02:31:53,600
The only way to reconcile these 
facts is if Andromeda is 

2629
02:31:53,600 --> 02:31:57,500
extraordinarily distant. 
Not thousands or tens of 

2630
02:31:57,500 --> 02:32:00,900
thousands of light years away, 
but nearly a million light 

2631
02:32:00,900 --> 02:32:04,400
years. 
This place is it far beyond any 

2632
02:32:04,400 --> 02:32:06,200
reasonable estimate of the 
Milky? 

2633
02:32:06,200 --> 02:32:10,000
Way, size Andromeda isn't a gas 
cloud within our galaxy. 

2634
02:32:10,000 --> 02:32:14,300
It's a Galaxy itself comparable 
in size to the Milky Way, 

2635
02:32:14,300 --> 02:32:17,200
containing hundreds of billions 
of stars. 

2636
02:32:18,100 --> 02:32:22,300
If Andromeda is a Galaxy, then 
likely all spiral nebulae are 

2637
02:32:22,308 --> 02:32:25,400
galaxies. 
This means the universe contains

2638
02:32:25,400 --> 02:32:28,500
not one gallaxy but countless 
millions of them. 

2639
02:32:29,200 --> 02:32:32,400
Scattered through space at 
distances that dwarfed, the 

2640
02:32:32,408 --> 02:32:36,000
distance is between Stars within
any single Galaxy. 

2641
02:32:36,000 --> 02:32:40,600
The universe is vastly almost 
incomprehensibly larger than 

2642
02:32:40,600 --> 02:32:43,400
anyone imagined. 
But you've made another 

2643
02:32:43,400 --> 02:32:47,600
Discovery even more startling, 
you've been measuring the 

2644
02:32:47,600 --> 02:32:51,200
Spectra of galaxies, analyzing 
the light they emit to, 

2645
02:32:51,200 --> 02:32:55,200
determine which wavelengths are 
present, what you found is that 

2646
02:32:55,200 --> 02:32:57,700
nearly, every galaxy shows a 
redshift. 

2647
02:32:57,700 --> 02:33:01,200
Meaning their light is shifted 
toward longer red wavelengths. 

2648
02:33:01,200 --> 02:33:05,400
Compared to what it should be 
and the more distant the Galaxy,

2649
02:33:05,400 --> 02:33:08,800
the greater the redshift. 
This redshift has a clear 

2650
02:33:08,800 --> 02:33:12,100
interpretation. 
These galaxies are moving away 

2651
02:33:12,100 --> 02:33:15,000
from us. 
The shift in wavelength is a 

2652
02:33:15,000 --> 02:33:18,800
Doppler effect the same 
phenomenon that makes a train 

2653
02:33:18,800 --> 02:33:21,000
whistles pitch, drop as it 
passes you. 

2654
02:33:21,000 --> 02:33:24,800
When a light source moves away 
its lightest stretched to longer

2655
02:33:24,800 --> 02:33:29,500
wavelengths, red shifted. 
When it approaches the lightest 

2656
02:33:29,500 --> 02:33:31,000
compressed to Shorter 
wavelengths. 

2657
02:33:31,000 --> 02:33:34,700
Blue shifted. 
Moreover, you've noticed a 

2658
02:33:34,700 --> 02:33:38,400
relationship. 
The father away a galaxy is the 

2659
02:33:38,400 --> 02:33:39,800
faster. 
Its receding. 

2660
02:33:40,700 --> 02:33:44,100
Double the distance and the 
recession velocity doubles as 

2661
02:33:44,100 --> 02:33:46,300
well. 
This relationship. 

2662
02:33:46,300 --> 02:33:49,800
What will become known as 
Hubble's Law has profound 

2663
02:33:49,800 --> 02:33:53,000
implications. 
If all distant galaxies are 

2664
02:33:53,000 --> 02:33:56,600
moving away from us and their 
recession, velocity increases 

2665
02:33:56,600 --> 02:33:59,500
with distance. 
The universe itself must be 

2666
02:33:59,500 --> 02:34:02,200
expanding. 
This is difficult to grasp. 

2667
02:34:02,200 --> 02:34:06,100
You're not saying Galaxy is a 
moving through space away from 

2668
02:34:06,100 --> 02:34:08,200
us as if we're at the center of 
an explosion. 

2669
02:34:09,000 --> 02:34:13,400
You're saying space itself is 
expanding carrying galaxies 

2670
02:34:13,400 --> 02:34:17,800
along with it, it's like dots on
an inflating balloon as the 

2671
02:34:17,800 --> 02:34:21,400
balloon, expands all dots move 
away from each other. 

2672
02:34:21,400 --> 02:34:26,400
But no dot is at the center of 
the expansion every observer in 

2673
02:34:26,400 --> 02:34:31,300
any Galaxy would see all other 
galaxies receding with more 

2674
02:34:31,300 --> 02:34:36,000
distant ones, receding faster. 
This expansion suggests, the 

2675
02:34:36,000 --> 02:34:39,700
universe has a history. 
If galaxies are currently moving

2676
02:34:39,700 --> 02:34:43,800
apart, they must have been 
closer together in the past, run

2677
02:34:43,800 --> 02:34:47,400
the expansion backward and you 
eventually reach a point where 

2678
02:34:47,400 --> 02:34:51,600
all matter was concentrated 
incredibly small dents. 

2679
02:34:51,700 --> 02:34:53,900
State. 
This is the beginning of what 

2680
02:34:53,900 --> 02:34:57,400
will later be called? 
The Big Bang Theory the idea 

2681
02:34:57,400 --> 02:35:02,000
that the Universe began in an 
extremely hot dense State and 

2682
02:35:02,000 --> 02:35:06,400
has been expanding and cooling 
ever since the implications 

2683
02:35:06,400 --> 02:35:10,000
Cascade outward. 
If the universe is expanding and

2684
02:35:10,000 --> 02:35:14,300
had a beginning, it has an age. 
You can estimate this age by 

2685
02:35:14,300 --> 02:35:17,400
calculating how long it would 
take galaxies to reach their 

2686
02:35:17,400 --> 02:35:19,800
current separation. 
Give them their observe 

2687
02:35:19,800 --> 02:35:22,200
philosophers your initial 
estimates. 

2688
02:35:22,200 --> 02:35:26,000
Suggest an age of a few billion 
years which is troubling young, 

2689
02:35:26,000 --> 02:35:30,000
geologists already have evidence
that Earth is older than that. 

2690
02:35:31,200 --> 02:35:33,000
But the principle is 
established. 

2691
02:35:33,700 --> 02:35:38,500
The universe isn't Eternal and 
unchanging, its Dynamic, and 

2692
02:35:38,500 --> 02:35:40,200
evolving with the definite 
history. 

2693
02:35:40,200 --> 02:35:44,100
As you stand beneath the stars, 
you realize your witnessing 

2694
02:35:44,100 --> 02:35:48,100
something unprecedented in human
history every previous 

2695
02:35:48,100 --> 02:35:52,300
generation believed the universe
was static unchanging in its 

2696
02:35:52,300 --> 02:35:55,100
large-scale structure. 
Oh, planets. 

2697
02:35:55,100 --> 02:35:58,000
Moved and comets appeared and 
stars, occasionally exploded, 

2698
02:35:58,000 --> 02:36:01,500
but the overall Universe its 
size its structure. 

2699
02:36:01,500 --> 02:36:04,800
Its fundamental nature was 
thought to be eternal. 

2700
02:36:05,600 --> 02:36:07,700
You've discovered this 
assumption is wrong. 

2701
02:36:07,700 --> 02:36:13,000
The universe is not static, it's
expanding Cooling and evolving. 

2702
02:36:13,000 --> 02:36:16,300
It had a beginning and will have
a future different from its 

2703
02:36:16,300 --> 02:36:19,500
present state. 
This discovery comes from 

2704
02:36:19,500 --> 02:36:24,200
technology, the 100 inch 
telescope photographic plates, 

2705
02:36:24,200 --> 02:36:28,100
sensitive enough, to capture 
faint light, and spectroscopes 

2706
02:36:28,100 --> 02:36:32,200
capable of analyzing that light.
None of this was available. 

2707
02:36:32,200 --> 02:36:36,600
Even 50 years ago, your 
Discovery was always waiting in 

2708
02:36:36,600 --> 02:36:41,400
the sky visible in principal but
invisible in practice until 

2709
02:36:41,400 --> 02:36:44,900
instruments became sophisticated
enough to detect it. 

2710
02:36:45,600 --> 02:36:47,600
How many more discoveries are 
out there? 

2711
02:36:47,600 --> 02:36:51,900
Waiting for better technology? 
You think about the long chain 

2712
02:36:51,900 --> 02:36:54,800
of observations and insights 
that led to this moment? 

2713
02:36:55,600 --> 02:36:58,900
Ancient astronomers identifying 
Celestial patterns. 

2714
02:36:58,900 --> 02:37:04,100
Babylonians calculating 
planetary positions Greeks 

2715
02:37:04,100 --> 02:37:08,200
creating geometric models 
telescopes revealing Jupiter's 

2716
02:37:08,200 --> 02:37:12,800
moons and Saturn's rings. 
Newton's Laws enable orbital 

2717
02:37:12,800 --> 02:37:15,800
calculations. 
Photography allows long 

2718
02:37:15,800 --> 02:37:19,400
exposures that see deeper into 
space than eyes alone could. 

2719
02:37:20,400 --> 02:37:23,500
Spectroscopy reveals the 
physical properties of distant 

2720
02:37:23,500 --> 02:37:27,000
objects, each Advanced built on 
previous work. 

2721
02:37:27,000 --> 02:37:31,000
Each generation seeing farther 
and understanding more deeply 

2722
02:37:31,000 --> 02:37:34,200
and now you've pushed the 
frontier again. 

2723
02:37:34,200 --> 02:37:38,000
You've measured the universe and
found it vast. 

2724
02:37:38,000 --> 02:37:42,000
And anyone thought you've 
discovered that its expanding 

2725
02:37:42,800 --> 02:37:45,300
That it has a history that is 
not eternal. 

2726
02:37:46,100 --> 02:37:49,700
Future Generations, will push 
father still answering 

2727
02:37:49,700 --> 02:37:51,900
questions? 
You haven't even thought to ask 

2728
02:37:51,900 --> 02:37:54,400
yet. 
Will they find the edge of the 

2729
02:37:54,400 --> 02:37:56,700
universe? 
Or is it in for infinite? 

2730
02:37:56,700 --> 02:38:00,100
What happened in those first 
moments after the expansion 

2731
02:38:00,100 --> 02:38:03,000
began? 
Oh, there are other universes 

2732
02:38:03,000 --> 02:38:06,600
Beyond hours, you don't know, 
but you're confident, they'll 

2733
02:38:06,600 --> 02:38:09,900
keep looking. 
The hooker telescope Dome closes

2734
02:38:09,900 --> 02:38:12,800
for the night. 
Your photographic plates are 

2735
02:38:12,800 --> 02:38:15,700
secure ready for detailed 
analysis tomorrow. 

2736
02:38:15,700 --> 02:38:19,000
The data is recorded, the 
measurements are made and the 

2737
02:38:19,000 --> 02:38:21,300
conclusions are becoming 
inescapable. 

2738
02:38:21,300 --> 02:38:26,300
The universe is larger stranger 
and more wonderful than Humanity

2739
02:38:26,300 --> 02:38:29,600
ever imagined. 
And that ultimately is the most 

2740
02:38:29,600 --> 02:38:32,000
exciting thing you could 
possibly discover. 

2741
02:38:32,000 --> 02:38:34,400
Not that we understand 
everything. 

2742
02:38:34,400 --> 02:38:39,000
But as there's so much more to 
explore your monitoring a radio 

2743
02:38:39,008 --> 02:38:44,100
telescope in northern England 
and the year is 1965 the 

2744
02:38:44,100 --> 02:38:46,000
instrument. 
You're using doesn't look like a

2745
02:38:46,000 --> 02:38:49,300
traditional telescope, no dough 
No IP. 

2746
02:38:49,300 --> 02:38:52,900
Just an array of horn-shaped 
antennas pointed at the sky 

2747
02:38:52,900 --> 02:38:55,900
connected to sensitive radio 
receivers. 

2748
02:38:55,900 --> 02:38:59,900
You're not looking at the sky 
invisible light, but in radio 

2749
02:38:59,900 --> 02:39:03,700
waves, which passed through 
clouds and work during daytime 

2750
02:39:03,700 --> 02:39:07,908
opening, the Heavens to 
Observation 24 hours. a day, 

2751
02:39:07,916 --> 02:39:12,100
your name is irrelevant to this 
particular night, but the 

2752
02:39:12,100 --> 02:39:15,700
discovery you're about to 
confirm is not You've been 

2753
02:39:15,708 --> 02:39:18,800
detecting a persistent 
background noise in your data. 

2754
02:39:19,800 --> 02:39:23,500
Faint radio signal, that appears
to come equally from all 

2755
02:39:23,500 --> 02:39:26,600
directions, in the sky. 
At first, you thought it was 

2756
02:39:26,608 --> 02:39:30,100
instrumental error or perhaps 
radio interference from nearby 

2757
02:39:30,100 --> 02:39:33,200
cities. 
But extensive checks of ruled 

2758
02:39:33,200 --> 02:39:38,000
out these explanations, the 
signal is real, it's Cosmic in 

2759
02:39:38,000 --> 02:39:41,800
origin and its uniform across 
the entire Sky to within one 

2760
02:39:41,800 --> 02:39:45,500
part in 10,000. 
This uniform signal is 

2761
02:39:45,500 --> 02:39:47,800
extraordinary because it 
shouldn't exist. 

2762
02:39:47,800 --> 02:39:51,600
If it came from stars or 
galaxies, it would be stronger 

2763
02:39:51,600 --> 02:39:55,700
in some direction than others 
concentrated in the Milky Ways. 

2764
02:39:55,700 --> 02:39:59,400
Plane, for instance, or showing 
bright spots, where galaxies 

2765
02:39:59,400 --> 02:40:01,900
cluster. 
But this signal is almost 

2766
02:40:01,900 --> 02:40:05,600
perfectly isotropic. 
The same from every direction. 

2767
02:40:05,600 --> 02:40:09,600
It's like the universe has a 
temperature and what your 

2768
02:40:09,600 --> 02:40:12,700
detecting is thermal radiation 
from the cosmos itself. 

2769
02:40:12,700 --> 02:40:16,800
The signals wavelength 
corresponds to extremely cold 

2770
02:40:16,800 --> 02:40:21,200
thermal radiation about three 
degrees of absolute zero. 

2771
02:40:21,200 --> 02:40:24,800
This is puzzling until you 
remember recent theoretical 

2772
02:40:24,800 --> 02:40:28,400
Works suggesting that if the 
universe began in a hot dense 

2773
02:40:28,400 --> 02:40:33,200
State, the Big Bang, it would 
have called as it expanded in 

2774
02:40:33,200 --> 02:40:35,800
its earliest moments. 
The universe would have been hot

2775
02:40:35,800 --> 02:40:38,800
enough to Glow, brightly 
invisible light, even in 

2776
02:40:38,800 --> 02:40:42,400
ultraviolet and x-rays. 
But as it expanded, this 

2777
02:40:42,400 --> 02:40:44,000
radiation would have stretched 
to. 

2778
02:40:44,000 --> 02:40:47,500
A longer wavelengths shifted by 
the expansion itself. 

2779
02:40:47,500 --> 02:40:52,400
Until today appears as faint 
radio waves, your detecting. 

2780
02:40:52,400 --> 02:40:56,400
The Afterglow of the Big Bang 
itself radiation that has 

2781
02:40:56,400 --> 02:41:00,500
traveled, through space, for 
nearly 14 billion years cooling 

2782
02:41:00,500 --> 02:41:04,300
from temperatures of thousands 
of degrees to just a few degrees

2783
02:41:04,300 --> 02:41:08,200
above absolute zero. 
This Cosmic microwave background

2784
02:41:08,200 --> 02:41:11,800
radiation is direct evidence 
that the Universe had a hot 

2785
02:41:11,800 --> 02:41:15,000
beginning, that it's been 
expanding and cooling ever 

2786
02:41:15,000 --> 02:41:17,500
since. 
And that, the Big Bang Theory is

2787
02:41:17,500 --> 02:41:20,300
correct. 
This discovery transforms 

2788
02:41:20,300 --> 02:41:23,800
cosmology from speculation to 
observational science. 

2789
02:41:24,900 --> 02:41:28,500
The fourth, this, the Big Bang 
was one Theory among several for

2790
02:41:28,500 --> 02:41:31,900
the universes origin. 
Now, it's strongly supported by 

2791
02:41:31,900 --> 02:41:36,200
direct evidence radiation, that 
could only exist if the universe

2792
02:41:36,200 --> 02:41:40,600
began in a hot dense state. 
Alternative theories that 

2793
02:41:40,600 --> 02:41:42,900
proposed an eternal 
steady-state. 

2794
02:41:42,900 --> 02:41:47,100
Universe cannot explain this 
uniform background radiation. 

2795
02:41:47,100 --> 02:41:51,400
The evidence is overwhelming. 
But the cosmic microwave 

2796
02:41:51,400 --> 02:41:54,500
background isn't just 
confirmation of the Big Bang. 

2797
02:41:54,500 --> 02:41:58,700
It's a snapshot of the early 
Universe a window into 

2798
02:41:58,700 --> 02:42:02,700
conditions when the cosmos was 
just 380,000 years old. 

2799
02:42:02,700 --> 02:42:07,000
Before that time, the universe 
was too hot for atoms to form 

2800
02:42:07,000 --> 02:42:11,700
electrons and protons existed, 
as a plasma and photons 

2801
02:42:11,700 --> 02:42:13,700
scattered off. 
These charged particles 

2802
02:42:13,700 --> 02:42:18,700
constantly making the universe 
opaque when the universe cooled 

2803
02:42:18,700 --> 02:42:23,700
enough for atoms to form photons
suddenly could travel freely The

2804
02:42:23,700 --> 02:42:26,500
radiation, you're detecting 
comes from that moment of 

2805
02:42:26,500 --> 02:42:29,100
recombination. 
When the universe became 

2806
02:42:29,100 --> 02:42:33,500
transparent by studying this 
radiation in detail measuring 

2807
02:42:33,500 --> 02:42:35,400
its temperature in different 
directions. 

2808
02:42:35,400 --> 02:42:40,600
Looking for tiny variations in 
intensity astronomers will learn

2809
02:42:40,600 --> 02:42:44,300
about the universe's structure 
at that early time slightly 

2810
02:42:44,300 --> 02:42:46,200
denser regions in the 
primordial. 

2811
02:42:46,200 --> 02:42:49,900
Plasma will appear a slightly 
warmer spots in the microwave 

2812
02:42:49,900 --> 02:42:53,000
background. 
These density variations were 

2813
02:42:53,000 --> 02:42:57,000
the seeds that eventually grew 
into galaxies clusters of 

2814
02:42:57,000 --> 02:43:00,500
galaxies and the large-scale 
structure visible in the 

2815
02:43:00,500 --> 02:43:03,500
universe today. 
Over the following decade 

2816
02:43:03,500 --> 02:43:07,400
increasingly sophisticated 
instruments will map The Cosmic 

2817
02:43:07,400 --> 02:43:10,300
microwave background with 
extraordinary, Precision 

2818
02:43:10,300 --> 02:43:13,900
satellites. 
Like cob e w. 

2819
02:43:13,900 --> 02:43:18,600
M, a p and plank will measure 
temperature, variations as small

2820
02:43:18,600 --> 02:43:23,000
as one part in 100,000. 
Revealing details information 

2821
02:43:23,000 --> 02:43:27,100
about universes, composition age
and geometry. 

2822
02:43:27,100 --> 02:43:30,300
These measurements will 
determine that the universe is 

2823
02:43:30,300 --> 02:43:33,300
approximately 13.8 billion years
old. 

2824
02:43:34,200 --> 02:43:38,100
That it's geometrically flat and
that it contains, not just 

2825
02:43:38,100 --> 02:43:41,600
ordinary matter, but also dark 
matter and dark energy, 

2826
02:43:41,600 --> 02:43:46,400
mysterious substances, whose 
nature remains unknown, but 

2827
02:43:46,400 --> 02:43:49,000
whose gravitational effects are 
undeniable. 

2828
02:43:49,000 --> 02:43:53,000
The cosmic microwave background 
will also provide evidence for 

2829
02:43:53,000 --> 02:43:57,300
Cosmic inflation, a brief 
period, of exponential expansion

2830
02:43:57,300 --> 02:44:00,400
that occurred in the universe's.
First fraction of a second 

2831
02:44:00,400 --> 02:44:04,300
inflation explains why. 
The universe is so uniform on 

2832
02:44:04,300 --> 02:44:08,500
large scales while it's 
geometrically, flat and why 

2833
02:44:08,500 --> 02:44:11,700
certain types of irregularity 
appear in the density, 

2834
02:44:11,700 --> 02:44:14,500
distribution of matter without 
inflation. 

2835
02:44:14,500 --> 02:44:17,000
The universe's, observe 
properties would require 

2836
02:44:17,000 --> 02:44:20,300
extraordinarily fine-tuned 
initial conditions. 

2837
02:44:21,100 --> 02:44:23,700
Within inflation, these 
properties emerge naturally 

2838
02:44:23,700 --> 02:44:27,800
from, well understood physics as
you examine the data streaming. 

2839
02:44:27,800 --> 02:44:30,400
From the radio telescope, your 
struck by. 

2840
02:44:30,400 --> 02:44:33,000
How much can be learned from 
such a faint signal. 

2841
02:44:33,000 --> 02:44:35,900
This radiation is incredibly 
weak. 

2842
02:44:36,700 --> 02:44:40,500
The total energy from the cosmic
microwave background hitting a 

2843
02:44:40,500 --> 02:44:43,800
person's body as far less than 
the energy from distant 

2844
02:44:43,800 --> 02:44:46,700
Starlight, which itself is 
minimal yet. 

2845
02:44:46,700 --> 02:44:50,200
This faint signal, contains 
information about the universe's

2846
02:44:50,200 --> 02:44:54,400
age, composition geometry and 
early history. 

2847
02:44:54,400 --> 02:44:58,200
It's as if the cosmos has left, 
its signature written in 

2848
02:44:58,200 --> 02:45:02,400
radiation, weighting billions of
years for technology to become 

2849
02:45:02,400 --> 02:45:07,000
sophisticated enough to read it.
You think about the long chain 

2850
02:45:07,000 --> 02:45:10,400
of discoveries that led here? 
Hubble discovered Galactic 

2851
02:45:10,400 --> 02:45:13,300
recession, implying the 
universe's expands 

2852
02:45:13,300 --> 02:45:17,200
extrapolating, this expansion 
backward to a hot dense, 

2853
02:45:17,200 --> 02:45:20,800
beginning theoretical physicists
are calculating. 

2854
02:45:20,800 --> 02:45:24,400
What conditions would be like in
the early Universe predicting 

2855
02:45:24,400 --> 02:45:27,400
that thermal radiation from, 
that era, should still be 

2856
02:45:27,400 --> 02:45:31,100
detectable Engineers are 
developing radio astronomy, 

2857
02:45:31,100 --> 02:45:35,200
creating instruments, sensitive 
enough to detect faint Cosmic 

2858
02:45:35,200 --> 02:45:38,500
signals at. 
Now the detection itself 

2859
02:45:38,500 --> 02:45:42,700
confirming predictions and 
opening new avenues of research,

2860
02:45:42,700 --> 02:45:46,300
the cosmic microwave background 
is also humbling. 

2861
02:45:46,300 --> 02:45:50,600
It shows that the matter with 
familiar with atoms, molecules 

2862
02:45:50,600 --> 02:45:53,800
everything made of protons 
neutrons and electrons, 

2863
02:45:53,800 --> 02:45:59,500
comprises only about 5% of the 
universe's total energy content.

2864
02:45:59,500 --> 02:46:02,500
The rest is dark matter, and 
dark energy. 

2865
02:46:02,500 --> 02:46:05,000
Substances whose nature is 
completely. 

2866
02:46:05,100 --> 02:46:08,000
The unknown. 
We've mapped the universe 

2867
02:46:08,000 --> 02:46:12,200
measured its age determined, its
composition and discovered that 

2868
02:46:12,200 --> 02:46:16,200
we don't understand 95% of what 
it contains yet. 

2869
02:46:16,200 --> 02:46:19,300
This ignorance is exciting 
rather than discouraging. 

2870
02:46:19,300 --> 02:46:22,500
It means astronomy is far from 
finished. 

2871
02:46:22,500 --> 02:46:27,000
There are fundamental Mysteries 
remaining questions whose 

2872
02:46:27,000 --> 02:46:31,200
answers will require new 
physics, new observations and 

2873
02:46:31,200 --> 02:46:34,500
perhaps revolutionary insights 
comparable to those that 

2874
02:46:34,500 --> 02:46:36,900
launched quantum mechanics or 
relativity. 

2875
02:46:36,900 --> 02:46:41,100
The universe is still surprising
us, still revealing, that 

2876
02:46:41,100 --> 02:46:44,500
reality is stranger and more 
wonderful than our theories 

2877
02:46:44,500 --> 02:46:47,800
predict. 
As Dawn approaches and your 

2878
02:46:47,800 --> 02:46:51,900
observing shift ends, you 
prepare your preliminary report 

2879
02:46:51,900 --> 02:46:57,000
the signal is real, its Cosmic 
and it matches predictions for 

2880
02:46:57,000 --> 02:46:59,200
the cold radiation from The Big 
Bang. 

2881
02:47:00,200 --> 02:47:04,000
Other observers will confirm it 
independently that's already 

2882
02:47:04,000 --> 02:47:05,800
happening. 
Actually, with similar, 

2883
02:47:05,800 --> 02:47:09,900
detections reported by other 
teams soon, this discovery will 

2884
02:47:09,900 --> 02:47:13,400
be announced publicly and it 
will transform Humanities 

2885
02:47:13,400 --> 02:47:17,600
understanding of cosmic history.
The Stars fade as the sky 

2886
02:47:17,600 --> 02:47:22,200
brightens but you know, they're 
still there still shining their 

2887
02:47:22,200 --> 02:47:25,200
light mixing with the faint 
microwave glow from the 

2888
02:47:25,200 --> 02:47:29,700
universe's hot beginning that 
glow has traveled for nearly 14 

2889
02:47:29,700 --> 02:47:33,400
billion years to reach your 
antennas carrying information 

2890
02:47:33,400 --> 02:47:37,500
about a time when no stars 
existed when no galaxies had 

2891
02:47:37,500 --> 02:47:40,400
formed. 
And when the universe was just a

2892
02:47:40,400 --> 02:47:44,600
hot dense plasma beginning at 
its long expansion toward the 

2893
02:47:44,600 --> 02:47:48,400
cool structured Cosmos. 
We inhabit today, somewhere in 

2894
02:47:48,400 --> 02:47:52,800
that ancient radiation in its 
tiny temperature variations and 

2895
02:47:52,800 --> 02:47:57,400
subtle polarization patterns 
like answers to questions. 

2896
02:47:57,400 --> 02:47:59,700
Humanity hasn't yet learned to 
ask. 

2897
02:48:00,400 --> 02:48:04,400
Future astronomers will extract 
those answers learning things 

2898
02:48:04,400 --> 02:48:07,500
about the universe's origin 
structure and fate that you 

2899
02:48:07,500 --> 02:48:11,300
can't even imagine. 
But tonight you've contributed 

2900
02:48:11,300 --> 02:48:15,400
your part to that ongoing 
project detecting, The Whisper 

2901
02:48:15,400 --> 02:48:19,100
from the beginning, confirming 
that the Universe has a history 

2902
02:48:19,100 --> 02:48:22,300
and opening a new window on 
Cosmic time. 

2903
02:48:22,300 --> 02:48:26,300
You're lying on your back in a 
dark field and the year is now 

2904
02:48:26,300 --> 02:48:31,000
no specific year. 
Really, this could be tonight to

2905
02:48:31,000 --> 02:48:33,100
tomorrow night or any clear 
night. 

2906
02:48:33,100 --> 02:48:37,100
When you decide to look up 
rather than down out rather than

2907
02:48:37,100 --> 02:48:40,700
in the grass beneath you is 
slightly damp with the evening 

2908
02:48:40,700 --> 02:48:43,400
due. 
The air is cool and above you, 

2909
02:48:43,400 --> 02:48:47,800
the sky Blazers with stars. 
If you are far from cities, you 

2910
02:48:47,800 --> 02:48:51,400
can see the Milky Way. 
That same river of light that 

2911
02:48:51,400 --> 02:48:54,400
our ancestors saw. 
Though, you know now it's 

2912
02:48:54,400 --> 02:48:57,800
actually the combined light of 
billions of stars in our 

2913
02:48:57,800 --> 02:49:02,300
galaxies disc viewed Edge on 
from Earth's position within it.

2914
02:49:02,300 --> 02:49:06,200
You can see planets too though, 
you need to know where to look. 

2915
02:49:06,200 --> 02:49:09,500
And when Venus might be 
brilliant in the west, just 

2916
02:49:09,500 --> 02:49:12,800
after Sunset, Jupiter could be 
higher overhead. 

2917
02:49:12,800 --> 02:49:17,100
It's Moon's invisible to your 
eyes but their nonetheless, 

2918
02:49:17,100 --> 02:49:20,800
exactly. 
As Galileo saw them, Mars might 

2919
02:49:20,800 --> 02:49:23,200
show its distinctive red, or 
orange color. 

2920
02:49:24,000 --> 02:49:27,400
Dust storms in its thin 
atmosphere reflecting sunlight 

2921
02:49:27,400 --> 02:49:32,800
from 90 million miles away. 
And you can see stars, thousands

2922
02:49:32,800 --> 02:49:36,200
of them with Naked Eyes, 
Millions, through modest, 

2923
02:49:36,200 --> 02:49:39,800
telescopes and billions through 
instruments, like Hubble or the 

2924
02:49:39,808 --> 02:49:44,300
James Webb Space Telescope. 
Each one is a son, many hosting 

2925
02:49:44,300 --> 02:49:48,600
planets, some of those planets 
potentially harboring life, the 

2926
02:49:48,600 --> 02:49:52,400
light, Reaching Your Eyes left 
those Stars years, or decades or

2927
02:49:52,400 --> 02:49:57,200
centuries ago, making you a time
traveler of sorts seeing the 

2928
02:49:57,200 --> 02:50:01,500
universe not as it is. 
But as it was You know things 

2929
02:50:01,500 --> 02:50:05,700
those ancient observers couldn't
have imagined you know the stars

2930
02:50:05,700 --> 02:50:09,700
are powered by nuclear fusion 
converting hydrogen to helium in

2931
02:50:09,700 --> 02:50:13,300
their cores generating energy 
through Einstein's, famous 

2932
02:50:13,300 --> 02:50:16,100
equation, relating, mass, and 
energy. 

2933
02:50:16,100 --> 02:50:20,200
You know, the universe is 
approximately 13.8 billion years

2934
02:50:20,200 --> 02:50:25,000
old formed in a hot, big bang, 
and expanding, ever since, you 

2935
02:50:25,000 --> 02:50:28,200
know, that galaxies cluster into
groups and super clusters, 

2936
02:50:28,200 --> 02:50:31,900
forming a cosmic web of 
structure spanning billions of 

2937
02:50:31,908 --> 02:50:35,600
light years, you know, the 
universe contains Dark Matter 

2938
02:50:35,600 --> 02:50:39,400
invisible substance detected 
only through its gravitational 

2939
02:50:39,400 --> 02:50:43,600
effects. 
Making up roughly 27% of the 

2940
02:50:43,600 --> 02:50:48,300
universe's, total energy, you 
know that dark energy, even more

2941
02:50:48,300 --> 02:50:53,600
mysterious comprises about 68% 
and its causing the universe's 

2942
02:50:53,600 --> 02:50:57,000
expansion to accelerate distant 
galaxies on. 

2943
02:50:57,000 --> 02:51:00,400
Not just moving away. 
Their moving away faster over 

2944
02:51:00,600 --> 02:51:05,000
Time driven by this mysterious 
Dark Energy whose nature is one 

2945
02:51:05,000 --> 02:51:07,700
of physics. 
Greatest unsolved problems. 

2946
02:51:07,700 --> 02:51:12,200
You know that many stars have 
planets that exoplanets number 

2947
02:51:12,200 --> 02:51:15,700
in the thousands already 
discovered and that more are 

2948
02:51:15,700 --> 02:51:18,500
found constantly. 
You know, some of these worlds 

2949
02:51:18,500 --> 02:51:22,700
are roughly earth-sized orbiting
their stars at distances where 

2950
02:51:22,700 --> 02:51:26,800
liquid water could exist, You 
know, the chemistry of life 

2951
02:51:26,800 --> 02:51:31,500
carbon-based molecules water and
energy is common throughout the 

2952
02:51:31,500 --> 02:51:34,200
Universe. 
You know that if life exists 

2953
02:51:34,200 --> 02:51:37,900
here it probably exists 
elsewhere too though whether 

2954
02:51:37,900 --> 02:51:41,900
it's common or rare simple or 
complex contemporary or extinct 

2955
02:51:41,900 --> 02:51:45,600
remains unknown yet. 
Despite all this knowledge, 

2956
02:51:45,600 --> 02:51:48,600
you're lying in a field. 
Looking at stars. 

2957
02:51:48,600 --> 02:51:51,100
Exactly. 
As humans have done for hundreds

2958
02:51:51,100 --> 02:51:54,500
of thousands of years, the 
technology has changed 

2959
02:51:54,500 --> 02:51:57,200
dramatically. 
You might have a telescope 

2960
02:51:57,200 --> 02:52:02,000
beside you or a smartphone app, 
identifying constellations or 

2961
02:52:02,000 --> 02:52:04,400
coordinates for satellites 
passing overhead. 

2962
02:52:05,300 --> 02:52:07,600
But fundamental activity is 
unchanged. 

2963
02:52:08,300 --> 02:52:13,300
Your watching the sky wandering 
about those lights, continuing a

2964
02:52:13,300 --> 02:52:16,000
tradition older than 
civilization itself. 

2965
02:52:17,000 --> 02:52:20,700
Stars your seeing of the same 
Stars, ancient observers saw 

2966
02:52:20,700 --> 02:52:24,800
give or take a few Supernova and
proper motion over millennia. 

2967
02:52:25,600 --> 02:52:29,300
The patterns are almost 
identical if an Ice Age Hunter 

2968
02:52:29,300 --> 02:52:32,800
or a Babylonian priest, or a 
Polynesian Navigator joined you.

2969
02:52:32,808 --> 02:52:37,600
In this field, you'd recognize 
the same constellations point to

2970
02:52:37,600 --> 02:52:42,000
the same bright stars and share 
the same sense of wonder at the 

2971
02:52:42,000 --> 02:52:45,500
vastness of what's different is 
understanding. 

2972
02:52:45,500 --> 02:52:48,800
You know, what those lights are,
how far away they are, what 

2973
02:52:48,800 --> 02:52:53,000
they're made of how they formed 
and how they'll die, you know, 

2974
02:52:53,000 --> 02:52:56,400
the physics governing their 
behavior, the chemistry of their

2975
02:52:56,400 --> 02:52:59,500
atmospheres and the mechanics of
their orbits. 

2976
02:53:00,200 --> 02:53:04,300
You've turned mystery into 
knowledge but somehow the Wonder

2977
02:53:04,300 --> 02:53:08,000
remains undiminished. 
Perhaps it's even greater now 

2978
02:53:08,000 --> 02:53:11,500
because you understand, not just
what you're seeing, but what it 

2979
02:53:11,500 --> 02:53:15,100
means, billions of Worlds 
scattered across in 

2980
02:53:15,100 --> 02:53:19,900
comprehensible distances, all 
governed by universal laws, all 

2981
02:53:19,900 --> 02:53:22,700
part of one vast interconnected 
Cosmos. 

2982
02:53:22,700 --> 02:53:27,400
This knowledge was hard one. 
It required countless observers 

2983
02:53:27,400 --> 02:53:30,500
spending countless nights 
recording positions measuring 

2984
02:53:30,500 --> 02:53:35,000
angles timing of events and 
noting correlations, It required

2985
02:53:35,000 --> 02:53:38,800
mathematical genius to create 
models, explaining observations 

2986
02:53:38,800 --> 02:53:42,100
it, required technological, 
innovation, to build 

2987
02:53:42,100 --> 02:53:44,700
instruments. 
Extending human Senses Into 

2988
02:53:44,700 --> 02:53:47,500
Realms. 
We can't perceive unaided it 

2989
02:53:47,500 --> 02:53:50,200
required patience. 
The patience to make 

2990
02:53:50,200 --> 02:53:53,800
observations over lifetimes to 
pursue answers across 

2991
02:53:53,800 --> 02:53:57,400
generations and to accept that, 
some questions wouldn't be 

2992
02:53:57,400 --> 02:53:59,600
answered in any individual 
lifetime. 

2993
02:54:00,400 --> 02:54:04,800
But mostly it required, 
curiosity that simple desire to 

2994
02:54:04,800 --> 02:54:07,900
understand to know what those 
lights are and what they mean 

2995
02:54:07,900 --> 02:54:11,700
has driven Humanity's. 
Astronomical efforts from the 

2996
02:54:11,700 --> 02:54:14,100
beginning. 
We didn't need to understand the

2997
02:54:14,100 --> 02:54:18,900
Stars to survive early humans 
managed without knowing Stellar 

2998
02:54:18,900 --> 02:54:20,800
distances or Galactic 
structures. 

2999
02:54:20,800 --> 02:54:25,200
But we wanted to know anyway and
that wanting was enough to 

3000
02:54:25,200 --> 02:54:28,500
motivate Millennia of effort as 
you lie there. 

3001
02:54:28,500 --> 02:54:31,400
You might wonder what future 
observers will know that you 

3002
02:54:31,400 --> 02:54:35,700
don't what discoveries await 
better instruments deeper 

3003
02:54:35,700 --> 02:54:38,500
observations and more 
sophisticated theories. 

3004
02:54:39,400 --> 02:54:42,600
Will we find life on other 
worlds or evidence that we're 

3005
02:54:42,600 --> 02:54:45,800
alone? 
Will we understand dark matter 

3006
02:54:45,800 --> 02:54:49,100
and dark energy or will they 
remain mysterious? 

3007
02:54:49,900 --> 02:54:52,900
Will we discover the universe's 
ultimate fate? 

3008
02:54:53,500 --> 02:54:58,100
Endless expansion eventual, 
collapse or something stranger. 

3009
02:54:58,100 --> 02:55:01,700
Will we develop Technologies 
allowing travel to other stars 

3010
02:55:01,700 --> 02:55:04,400
or will the distances prove 
insurmountable? 

3011
02:55:04,400 --> 02:55:06,800
You don't know. 
And that's wonderful. 

3012
02:55:06,800 --> 02:55:09,700
It means astronomy. 
Story isn't finished. 

3013
02:55:09,700 --> 02:55:14,100
There are still Mysteries to 
solve discoveries to make and 

3014
02:55:14,100 --> 02:55:17,000
Revolutions in understanding 
waiting to happen. 

3015
02:55:17,900 --> 02:55:23,000
The universe is vast and strange
and Humanity as barely begun. 

3016
02:55:23,000 --> 02:55:26,600
Exploring it what we've learned 
in our brief time as a species 

3017
02:55:26,600 --> 02:55:30,500
is impressive, but what remains 
to learn is surely greater 

3018
02:55:30,500 --> 02:55:35,200
still, the stars shine on 
indifferent to human observation

3019
02:55:35,200 --> 02:55:38,600
following physical laws 
established billions of years 

3020
02:55:38,600 --> 02:55:40,700
ago in the universe's hot 
beginning. 

3021
02:55:40,700 --> 02:55:45,400
They'll continue shining long 
after Humanity as gone where the

3022
02:55:45,400 --> 02:55:48,700
that's thousands millions or 
billions of years from now. 

3023
02:55:48,700 --> 02:55:53,100
But while we're here, While we 
have the capacity to wonder and 

3024
02:55:53,100 --> 02:55:57,100
observe, and understand we're 
part of something magnificent. 

3025
02:55:58,000 --> 02:56:00,100
The universe coming to know 
itself. 

3026
02:56:01,700 --> 02:56:03,900
Because that's what astronomy is
ultimately. 

3027
02:56:03,900 --> 02:56:08,200
It's the cosmos developing 
awareness, asking questions 

3028
02:56:08,200 --> 02:56:12,400
about its own nature and seeking
answers to how and why it 

3029
02:56:12,400 --> 02:56:15,700
exists. 
We are the universe observing 

3030
02:56:15,700 --> 02:56:20,200
itself, matter and energy 
arranged in patterns complex 

3031
02:56:20,200 --> 02:56:22,700
enough to contemplate their own 
Origins. 

3032
02:56:22,700 --> 02:56:26,200
When you look at stars and 
wonder about them, your 

3033
02:56:26,200 --> 02:56:30,500
participating in something. 
Profound the long patient work 

3034
02:56:30,500 --> 02:56:34,900
of understanding of transforming
mystery into knowledge of 

3035
02:56:34,900 --> 02:56:38,500
finding Humanity's place in the 
vast Cosmic story. 

3036
02:56:38,500 --> 02:56:44,200
So when clear nights come step 
out side, look up your caring 

3037
02:56:44,200 --> 02:56:48,400
forward, a traditions of 
thousands of years old joining 

3038
02:56:48,400 --> 02:56:51,900
countless observers across time 
who have shared your curiosity, 

3039
02:56:51,900 --> 02:56:55,300
you're seeing light that 
traveled across space and time 

3040
02:56:55,300 --> 02:56:58,500
to reach your eyes. 
Photons that began their 

3041
02:56:58,500 --> 02:57:02,000
Journeys years or centuries ago 
from distant Sons. 

3042
02:57:02,000 --> 02:57:06,100
Your witnessing a universe of 
almost incomprehensible scale 

3043
02:57:06,100 --> 02:57:09,500
and Beauty governed. 
By elegant laws we've only 

3044
02:57:09,500 --> 02:57:13,300
partially understood and in 
doing so your continuing the 

3045
02:57:13,300 --> 02:57:17,400
work, those First curious humans
began on African grasslands so 

3046
02:57:17,408 --> 02:57:20,200
long ago. 
The work of looking upward 

3047
02:57:20,200 --> 02:57:24,800
wondering what those lights 
might be and slowly patiently, 

3048
02:57:24,800 --> 02:57:29,700
figuring it out. 
The journey isn't finished, the 

3049
02:57:29,700 --> 02:57:34,700
sky holds mystery still waiting 
for observers with new tools and

3050
02:57:34,700 --> 02:57:39,000
new insights to reveal them. 
But tonight, your part of that 

3051
02:57:39,000 --> 02:57:44,100
Journey, Connected across time 
to everyone, who's ever wondered

3052
02:57:44,100 --> 02:57:48,400
about the Stars, welcome to that
ancient Fellowship of star. 

3053
02:57:48,400 --> 02:57:52,900
Watchers, the universe is vast, 
beautiful and comprehensible, 

3054
02:57:52,900 --> 02:57:56,800
and it's been waiting billions 
of years for mine's capable of 

3055
02:57:56,800 --> 02:57:59,900
understanding it. 
You're one of those mines. 

3056
02:57:59,900 --> 02:58:04,300
Look up, wonder and know that 
your participating in one of 

3057
02:58:04,300 --> 02:58:08,700
Humanity's greatest projects. 
The long patient effort to 

3058
02:58:08,700 --> 02:58:12,000
understand how the universe 
works and our place within it. 

3059
02:58:13,000 --> 02:58:19,600
Sweet dreams beneath the stars. 
Let's start at the very 

3060
02:58:19,600 --> 02:58:21,900
beginning. 
Back when your biggest clothing 

3061
02:58:21,900 --> 02:58:24,900
decision was whether to drape 
that Mammoth hide with the fur 

3062
02:58:24,900 --> 02:58:29,000
on the inside, or outside, we're
talking about roughly 170,000 

3063
02:58:29,000 --> 02:58:31,900
years ago, give or take a few 
Millennia back. 

3064
02:58:31,900 --> 02:58:36,000
When Fashion Week lasted about 
Four Seasons literally, Your 

3065
02:58:36,000 --> 02:58:38,300
earliest ancestors had what you 
might call the ultimate 

3066
02:58:38,300 --> 02:58:41,700
minimalist wardrobe, imagine 
waking up each morning in your 

3067
02:58:41,708 --> 02:58:45,000
only outfit choice being naked 
or slightly less naked with some

3068
02:58:45,000 --> 02:58:48,600
leaves, strategically placed. 
It was like having a closet with

3069
02:58:48,600 --> 02:58:52,000
just one item and that item was 
whatever you could hunt gather 

3070
02:58:52,000 --> 02:58:54,600
or convinced to stay. 
Put long enough to provide 

3071
02:58:54,600 --> 02:58:56,900
coverage but here's where it 
gets interesting. 

3072
02:58:57,700 --> 02:59:00,600
Those early humans weren't just 
randomly throwing animal skins 

3073
02:59:00,600 --> 02:59:03,700
over their shoulders, like they 
were playing prehistoric dress 

3074
02:59:03,700 --> 02:59:07,300
up, they were actually solving 
problems the same kind of 

3075
02:59:07,308 --> 02:59:09,700
problems you face today. 
Just with higher stakes. 

3076
02:59:09,700 --> 02:59:12,700
In stead of will this make me 
look professional in my zoom 

3077
02:59:12,700 --> 02:59:14,900
meeting. 
It would dealing with it. 

3078
02:59:14,900 --> 02:59:17,400
Will this keep me from becoming 
a popsicle during the Ice Age. 

3079
02:59:18,300 --> 02:59:21,300
First real breakthrough came, 
when someone let's call the 

3080
02:59:21,300 --> 02:59:24,700
world's first fashion designer, 
figured out that you could 

3081
02:59:24,700 --> 02:59:28,300
actually shape these animal 
hides of just draping, a deer 

3082
02:59:28,300 --> 02:59:31,300
skin over your shoulders, like a
furry Cape, you could cut holes 

3083
02:59:31,300 --> 02:59:33,500
for your arms revolutionary 
stuff. 

3084
02:59:33,500 --> 02:59:36,600
This was probably the moment 
when clothing stopped being just

3085
02:59:36,600 --> 02:59:39,300
about survival and started being
about looking good. 

3086
02:59:39,300 --> 02:59:41,600
While surviving, you can almost 
picture it. 

3087
02:59:42,300 --> 02:59:45,300
Some Paleolithic Trend Setter 
walking around the camp showing 

3088
02:59:45,300 --> 02:59:48,600
off their new fitted. 
Mammoth, hi jacket while their 

3089
02:59:48,600 --> 02:59:51,800
neighbors were still wearing 
shapeless fur blankets, oh, this

3090
02:59:51,800 --> 02:59:54,200
old thing, it probably Grunt in 
whatever. 

3091
02:59:54,200 --> 02:59:57,200
Passed for language back there. 
I just threw it together. 

3092
02:59:57,200 --> 02:59:59,900
It's vintage place to seen the 
tools. 

3093
02:59:59,900 --> 03:00:03,100
They used were beautifully. 
Simple shops stones for cutting 

3094
03:00:03,100 --> 03:00:07,500
bone needles for sewing. 
Yes, they had needles 40,000 

3095
03:00:07,500 --> 03:00:10,400
years ago which means they were 
probably dealing with the same 

3096
03:00:10,400 --> 03:00:13,500
frustrating experience of trying
to thread and needle in dim 

3097
03:00:13,500 --> 03:00:16,200
light that you face today. 
Some things, never change. 

3098
03:00:16,200 --> 03:00:19,200
But the really clever part was 
how they figured out different 

3099
03:00:19,200 --> 03:00:22,900
materials for different needs. 
Lighter skin for summer, thicker

3100
03:00:22,900 --> 03:00:26,300
Firs for winter, waterproof 
treatments for rainy Seasons. 

3101
03:00:26,300 --> 03:00:29,200
They were essentially creating 
the world's first weather 

3102
03:00:29,200 --> 03:00:31,300
appropriate wardrobes long 
before. 

3103
03:00:31,300 --> 03:00:34,600
Anyone had invented weather 
forecast to ignore and lets not 

3104
03:00:34,600 --> 03:00:37,600
forget the accessories 
archaeological evidence shows. 

3105
03:00:37,600 --> 03:00:40,200
They were making jewelry 
decorative elements. 

3106
03:00:40,200 --> 03:00:42,000
Even what appeared to be the 
world. 

3107
03:00:42,300 --> 03:00:45,700
First buttons, because 
apparently even 100,000 years 

3108
03:00:45,700 --> 03:00:48,900
ago, humans looked at functional
clothing and thought this is 

3109
03:00:48,900 --> 03:00:50,700
nice. 
But how can we make it pretty 

3110
03:00:50,700 --> 03:00:54,200
Easier by the end of this era? 
Your ancestors had essentially 

3111
03:00:54,200 --> 03:00:56,300
invented everything. 
We still use in clothing today. 

3112
03:00:57,000 --> 03:01:00,600
Butting sowing layering 
accessorizing. 

3113
03:01:00,600 --> 03:01:03,800
And most importantly, the 
Eternal human struggle of having

3114
03:01:03,800 --> 03:01:06,500
a closet full of options and 
still feeling like you have 

3115
03:01:06,508 --> 03:01:09,400
nothing appropriate to wear to 
the Clans Mammoth barbecue 

3116
03:01:09,400 --> 03:01:12,800
around 10,000 years ago, 
something remarkable happened, 

3117
03:01:12,800 --> 03:01:14,700
that would forever change. 
What you wore to bed? 

3118
03:01:15,400 --> 03:01:18,300
Humans discovered agriculture, 
which meant they could stop 

3119
03:01:18,300 --> 03:01:20,900
chasing their dinner around and 
start growing it instead. 

3120
03:01:20,900 --> 03:01:23,800
This was great news for many 
reasons, but particularly 

3121
03:01:23,800 --> 03:01:26,500
excellent news for your 
wardrobe, you see, when people 

3122
03:01:26,500 --> 03:01:29,700
settle down and started farming,
they suddenly had time to think 

3123
03:01:29,700 --> 03:01:32,400
about things other than, where's
my next meal coming from 

3124
03:01:32,400 --> 03:01:35,200
questions. 
Like why am I wearing the same 

3125
03:01:35,200 --> 03:01:37,200
Mammoth skin my 
great-grandfather war? 

3126
03:01:37,200 --> 03:01:40,900
And surely there's got to be 
something softer than high for 

3127
03:01:40,900 --> 03:01:44,100
undergarments and to plant 
fibers some brilliant, early 

3128
03:01:44,100 --> 03:01:47,500
farmer looked at their fields of
flax and thought I bet I could 

3129
03:01:47,508 --> 03:01:49,600
turn this into something more 
comfortable than leather. 

3130
03:01:50,400 --> 03:01:53,400
And thus began Humanity's long, 
beautiful relationship with 

3131
03:01:53,400 --> 03:01:57,400
textiles that don't require 
hunting large dangerous animals.

3132
03:01:57,400 --> 03:02:01,100
A protest of turning plants into
clothing was wonderfully complex

3133
03:02:01,100 --> 03:02:03,800
and completely mind-boggling. 
If you really think about it, 

3134
03:02:03,800 --> 03:02:08,800
take flags, for instance, you 
had to harvest it Reddit, which 

3135
03:02:08,800 --> 03:02:11,500
is a fancy word for letting it 
rot in just the right way. 

3136
03:02:12,200 --> 03:02:15,600
Break its got it, Hackle it and 
then finally spin it into 

3137
03:02:15,600 --> 03:02:17,500
thread. 
It was like the world's most 

3138
03:02:17,500 --> 03:02:20,300
complicated recipe except 
instead of ending up with 

3139
03:02:20,300 --> 03:02:22,500
dinner, you ended up with linen 
underwear. 

3140
03:02:23,500 --> 03:02:25,600
But here's what's really 
Charming about this period, 

3141
03:02:25,600 --> 03:02:30,200
people started specializing in 
the village, making their own 

3142
03:02:30,200 --> 03:02:32,200
clothes. 
You had the person who was 

3143
03:02:32,200 --> 03:02:35,800
really good at spinning, the one
who excelled at weaving and the 

3144
03:02:35,800 --> 03:02:37,300
one who had a knack for dying 
things. 

3145
03:02:37,300 --> 03:02:39,700
Interesting, colors. 
It was the beginning of the 

3146
03:02:39,700 --> 03:02:42,100
fashion industry, though. 
They probably didn't call it, 

3147
03:02:42,100 --> 03:02:44,200
that more likely, they called 
it. 

3148
03:02:44,200 --> 03:02:47,000
Hey, can you make me something 
that doesn't itch? 

3149
03:02:48,100 --> 03:02:50,400
The invention of the Loom was 
particularly revolutionary 

3150
03:02:50,400 --> 03:02:53,900
imagine being the first person 
to see fabric being created. 

3151
03:02:53,900 --> 03:02:57,400
On one of these Contraptions, it
must have seemed like absolute 

3152
03:02:57,400 --> 03:03:01,400
magic threads going in One 
Direction threads going in the 

3153
03:03:01,400 --> 03:03:03,800
other and somehow out comes 
cloth. 

3154
03:03:03,800 --> 03:03:07,200
It was like watching a 3D 
printer except the technology 

3155
03:03:07,200 --> 03:03:10,900
was made of wood and required 
actual skill to operate cotton 

3156
03:03:10,900 --> 03:03:12,600
appeared on the scene around 
this time too. 

3157
03:03:12,600 --> 03:03:17,200
First in India and Pakistan was 
like the miracle fabric of his 

3158
03:03:17,200 --> 03:03:19,700
day. 
Softer than linen, more 

3159
03:03:19,700 --> 03:03:21,400
comfortable than wool and it got
better. 

3160
03:03:21,400 --> 03:03:24,600
The more you washed, it ancient 
people's probably looked at 

3161
03:03:24,608 --> 03:03:27,900
cotton the way you look at 
moisture wicking stain resistant

3162
03:03:27,900 --> 03:03:31,800
wrinkle-free Fabrics today like 
some kind of textile Wizardry 

3163
03:03:31,800 --> 03:03:33,500
wall, brought its own 
Revolution. 

3164
03:03:34,300 --> 03:03:36,500
Sheep were basically, walking 
sweater factories. 

3165
03:03:36,500 --> 03:03:39,300
And once people figured out how 
to share them, hopefully, 

3166
03:03:39,300 --> 03:03:42,900
without too much protest from 
the Sheep, they had access to a 

3167
03:03:42,900 --> 03:03:45,100
renewable resource for warm 
durable clothing. 

3168
03:03:45,100 --> 03:03:48,700
Plus, we'll have this amazing 
property of keeping you warm 

3169
03:03:48,700 --> 03:03:52,000
even when wet which made it the 
ancient equivalent of high-tech 

3170
03:03:52,000 --> 03:03:54,300
outdoor gear. 
The really interesting part of 

3171
03:03:54,300 --> 03:03:57,300
this agricultural clothing 
Revolution was how it started. 

3172
03:03:57,300 --> 03:04:00,700
Creating social distinctions, 
the quality of your fabric, 

3173
03:04:00,700 --> 03:04:02,500
began saying things about who 
you were. 

3174
03:04:03,200 --> 03:04:05,500
Finally, in suggested you had 
time and resources. 

3175
03:04:05,500 --> 03:04:07,700
Coarse wool meant. 
You were practical and 

3176
03:04:07,700 --> 03:04:10,700
hardworking. 
Certain colors became associated

3177
03:04:10,700 --> 03:04:13,700
with wealth because the dies 
were expensive or difficult to 

3178
03:04:13,700 --> 03:04:15,600
obtain. 
By the end of this period. 

3179
03:04:15,600 --> 03:04:18,700
You'd gone from wearing whatever
animal you could catch to have 

3180
03:04:18,700 --> 03:04:22,600
actual choices. 
Linen for hot weather for cold 

3181
03:04:22,600 --> 03:04:24,500
different weaves for different 
occasions. 

3182
03:04:24,500 --> 03:04:28,100
It was the birth of the seasonal
wardrobe and probably the birth 

3183
03:04:28,100 --> 03:04:30,300
of that familiar feeling of 
looking at your closet and 

3184
03:04:30,300 --> 03:04:34,500
saying, I need new clothes. 
The civilizations began to 

3185
03:04:34,500 --> 03:04:37,700
flourish around Rivers, like the
Nile Euphrates and inddus 

3186
03:04:37,700 --> 03:04:40,400
clothing. 
Stopped being just about comfort

3187
03:04:40,400 --> 03:04:43,100
and protection and started 
becoming something much more 

3188
03:04:43,100 --> 03:04:45,500
interesting a way to show the 
world. 

3189
03:04:45,500 --> 03:04:49,200
Exactly who you thought you were
the ancient Egyptians were 

3190
03:04:49,200 --> 03:04:52,100
perhaps the world's first 
fashion influencers though. 

3191
03:04:52,100 --> 03:04:54,400
Their Instagram would have been 
painted on Tomb walls. 

3192
03:04:54,400 --> 03:04:57,100
They took linen. 
Remember that plant fiber we 

3193
03:04:57,108 --> 03:04:59,300
talked about and elevated it to 
an art. 

3194
03:04:59,300 --> 03:05:02,600
Form Egyptian, linen was so fine
and well-made that other 

3195
03:05:02,600 --> 03:05:04,900
civilizations literally used it 
as currency. 

3196
03:05:05,600 --> 03:05:07,600
Imagine paying your mortgage 
with bed sheets. 

3197
03:05:07,600 --> 03:05:09,900
Except these bed sheets were 
woven. 

3198
03:05:09,900 --> 03:05:13,500
So skillfully, they were nearly 
transparent Egyptian fashion was

3199
03:05:13,500 --> 03:05:16,800
all about clean lines, elegant 
draping and accessories, that 

3200
03:05:16,800 --> 03:05:19,900
would make a modern jewelry 
designer weep With Envy The 

3201
03:05:19,900 --> 03:05:22,500
Wealthy War Lin in. 
So fine, it was practically see 

3202
03:05:22,500 --> 03:05:25,000
through which might seem 
impractical until you remember. 

3203
03:05:25,000 --> 03:05:28,200
They lived in a desert, their 
clothing was designed to be cool

3204
03:05:28,200 --> 03:05:31,500
comfortable and stunning, the 
ancient equivalent of a pleasure

3205
03:05:31,500 --> 03:05:34,700
if athletic came with gold and 
collars and enough highlighter 

3206
03:05:34,700 --> 03:05:37,200
to supply a rock band. 
But here's what's really 

3207
03:05:37,200 --> 03:05:40,400
delightful about Egyptian 
fashion, they invented so many 

3208
03:05:40,400 --> 03:05:44,200
things we still used today 
pleating, that was them. 

3209
03:05:44,200 --> 03:05:46,900
They could create permanent 
pleats in Lin in that would 

3210
03:05:46,900 --> 03:05:49,500
last, for years, make up as a 
fashion accessory. 

3211
03:05:49,500 --> 03:05:53,000
Absolutely Egyptian, both men 
and women wore. 

3212
03:05:53,000 --> 03:05:55,800
Elaborate eye makeup, not just 
for beauty, but for protection, 

3213
03:05:55,800 --> 03:05:59,600
from the Desert Sun, They 
basically invented sunglasses, 

3214
03:05:59,600 --> 03:06:03,600
except theirs were painted on 
meanwhile over in Mesopotamia. 

3215
03:06:03,600 --> 03:06:06,100
The Sumerians and Babylonians 
were having their own fashion 

3216
03:06:06,100 --> 03:06:07,900
moment. 
They were the first civilization

3217
03:06:07,900 --> 03:06:12,200
to really Embrace wool as a 
luxury item creating incredibly 

3218
03:06:12,200 --> 03:06:16,100
elaborate garments with complex 
patterns and Rich, colors their 

3219
03:06:16,100 --> 03:06:17,600
clothing. 
Tended, to be more structured 

3220
03:06:17,600 --> 03:06:20,600
than Egyptian fashion. 
Lots of layering Fringe and 

3221
03:06:20,608 --> 03:06:23,400
geometric designs that would 
look perfectly at home in a 

3222
03:06:23,400 --> 03:06:26,100
modern art museum. 
The Mesopotamians also gave us 

3223
03:06:26,100 --> 03:06:29,400
one of Fashion's most enduring 
Concepts the idea that your 

3224
03:06:29,400 --> 03:06:32,900
clothes should match your job. 
Priests were certain Styles. 

3225
03:06:32,900 --> 03:06:36,500
Rulers were others, Merchants 
have their look and Farmers had 

3226
03:06:36,500 --> 03:06:38,500
theirs. 
It was the beginning of dress 

3227
03:06:38,500 --> 03:06:40,700
codes though. 
Thankfully more colorful than 

3228
03:06:40,700 --> 03:06:43,900
most modern officers attire, 
ancient Greece, brought a 

3229
03:06:43,900 --> 03:06:46,900
completely different aesthetic 
to the table, where Egyptians 

3230
03:06:46,900 --> 03:06:49,900
loved structure and 
Mesopotamians loved complexity. 

3231
03:06:49,900 --> 03:06:52,800
The Greeks fell in love with 
Simplicity, and the beauty of 

3232
03:06:52,800 --> 03:06:56,200
draped fabric, the Titan and 
himation were not really sown 

3233
03:06:56,200 --> 03:06:57,700
garments in the way, we think of
clothes. 

3234
03:06:57,800 --> 03:07:01,300
Today, they were essentially 
rectangles of fabric draped and 

3235
03:07:01,300 --> 03:07:04,700
pined in elegant ways. 
Greek fashion was remarkably 

3236
03:07:04,700 --> 03:07:08,700
Democratic, at least in terms of
basic construction, rich and 

3237
03:07:08,700 --> 03:07:10,500
poor were essentially the same 
Styles. 

3238
03:07:10,500 --> 03:07:13,100
The difference was in the 
quality of the fabric, in the 

3239
03:07:13,108 --> 03:07:16,200
fineness of the weave. 
A wealthy Greek might wear a 

3240
03:07:16,200 --> 03:07:18,200
chiton made of the finest 
imported silk. 

3241
03:07:18,200 --> 03:07:22,000
While a farmer wore one made of 
rough wool, but the basic shape 

3242
03:07:22,000 --> 03:07:24,800
was the same. 
The Romans never wants to let 

3243
03:07:24,800 --> 03:07:27,900
the Greeks out do them in 
anything took Greek fashion and 

3244
03:07:27,900 --> 03:07:31,800
made it more Roman which is to 
say more elaborate more colorful

3245
03:07:31,800 --> 03:07:35,400
and with better marketing the 
toga became the ultimate status 

3246
03:07:35,400 --> 03:07:37,500
symbol there. 
Anyone who's ever tried to wear 

3247
03:07:37,500 --> 03:07:39,700
a bed sheet as clothing can 
appreciate what a feat. 

3248
03:07:39,700 --> 03:07:42,700
It was to wear one with dignity,
Roman fashion gave us the 

3249
03:07:42,700 --> 03:07:45,000
concept of seasonal collections 
though. 

3250
03:07:45,000 --> 03:07:47,400
They didn't call them that they 
had different weights and 

3251
03:07:47,400 --> 03:07:50,100
styles, for different times of 
year different colors for 

3252
03:07:50,100 --> 03:07:53,400
different occasions and an 
elaborate system of accessories 

3253
03:07:53,400 --> 03:07:56,500
that could take hours to put on 
properly, getting dressed as a 

3254
03:07:56,508 --> 03:07:58,600
wealthy. 
Roman was basically a full-time 

3255
03:07:58,600 --> 03:08:01,100
job. 
But perhaps the most important 

3256
03:08:01,100 --> 03:08:04,100
contribution of these ancient 
civilizations was the idea that 

3257
03:08:04,100 --> 03:08:06,300
clothing could be beautiful for 
its own sake. 

3258
03:08:06,300 --> 03:08:09,000
It didn't just have to keep you 
warm or cool or modest. 

3259
03:08:09,000 --> 03:08:11,900
It could be art that you wore. 
This was the beginning of 

3260
03:08:11,900 --> 03:08:15,100
fashion as we know it today. 
The moment when humans looked at

3261
03:08:15,100 --> 03:08:18,500
perfectly functional clothing 
and asked, but is it fabulous? 

3262
03:08:19,400 --> 03:08:21,500
If you think getting dressed for
work is complicated. 

3263
03:08:21,500 --> 03:08:26,100
Now, be grateful, you were born 
into medieval nobility, the 

3264
03:08:26,100 --> 03:08:28,900
Middle Ages, turned clothing 
into something resembling, an 

3265
03:08:28,900 --> 03:08:31,700
engineering project complete 
with structural supports 

3266
03:08:31,700 --> 03:08:35,600
complex, layering systems and 
enough fabric to upholster, a 

3267
03:08:35,600 --> 03:08:38,000
small Castle. 
The medieval period began around

3268
03:08:38,000 --> 03:08:40,600
500 seats, with what you might 
charitably. 

3269
03:08:40,600 --> 03:08:44,900
Call Simple clothing, After the 
fall of Rome, fashion became 

3270
03:08:44,900 --> 03:08:48,400
much more practical. 
People wore basic tunics, simple

3271
03:08:48,400 --> 03:08:51,800
dresses and sturdy, cloaks there
was the clothing equivalent of 

3272
03:08:51,800 --> 03:08:54,600
comfort food. 
Nothing fancy but it got the job

3273
03:08:54,600 --> 03:08:56,600
done. 
But as the century has 

3274
03:08:56,600 --> 03:08:59,800
progressed and Society became 
more structured clothing, became

3275
03:08:59,800 --> 03:09:03,000
more structured to buy the 
Middle Ages getting dressed, 

3276
03:09:03,000 --> 03:09:06,900
especially if you were wealthy 
required assistance planning and

3277
03:09:06,900 --> 03:09:08,500
occasionally architectural 
knowledge. 

3278
03:09:08,500 --> 03:09:11,300
Let's start with the 
undergarments because medieval 

3279
03:09:11,300 --> 03:09:13,800
people were surprisingly, 
sophisticated about what went 

3280
03:09:13,800 --> 03:09:16,700
underneath. 
Women will linen, she misses 

3281
03:09:16,700 --> 03:09:19,000
that served as both underwear 
and protection for their 

3282
03:09:19,000 --> 03:09:20,300
expensive. 
Outer garments. 

3283
03:09:20,300 --> 03:09:23,900
Men wore braised which were 
essentially linen shorts tied at

3284
03:09:23,908 --> 03:09:26,100
the waist. 
These weren't just practical. 

3285
03:09:26,100 --> 03:09:28,800
They were essential because 
medieval wool could be 

3286
03:09:28,800 --> 03:09:31,200
remarkably. 
Itchy the layering system that 

3287
03:09:31,200 --> 03:09:34,100
developed during this period was
like, wearing your entire closet

3288
03:09:34,100 --> 03:09:38,400
at once women might wear a 
chemise, then a tunic, then a 

3289
03:09:38,400 --> 03:09:42,600
circuit, then a cloak each layer
serving, a specific purpose, it 

3290
03:09:42,600 --> 03:09:45,600
was practical for the climates, 
certainly, but it also created 

3291
03:09:45,600 --> 03:09:48,500
endless opportunities for 
showing off different Fabrics, 

3292
03:09:48,500 --> 03:09:52,200
colors and trims medieval 
fashion gave us some of the most

3293
03:09:52,200 --> 03:09:55,300
impractical but gorgeous 
clothing Innovations in history.

3294
03:09:55,300 --> 03:09:58,600
Take the hen in those tall 
pointed head dresses. 

3295
03:09:58,600 --> 03:10:01,100
That look like traffic cones 
decorated By Angels. 

3296
03:10:01,100 --> 03:10:04,400
They could be several feet tall 
and required careful navigation,

3297
03:10:04,400 --> 03:10:07,600
through doorways. 
Imagine trying to get into a car

3298
03:10:07,600 --> 03:10:09,900
while wearing one actually, 
don't imagine that. 

3299
03:10:09,900 --> 03:10:12,500
It's too disturbing. 
The wealthy medieval. 

3300
03:10:12,500 --> 03:10:14,400
Europeans were obsessed with 
sleeves. 

3301
03:10:15,100 --> 03:10:17,600
Not just any sleeves but sleeves
that defied logic and 

3302
03:10:17,600 --> 03:10:20,000
occasionally gravity. 
Some were so long. 

3303
03:10:20,000 --> 03:10:22,500
They dragged on the ground, 
others were so wide. 

3304
03:10:22,500 --> 03:10:25,700
You could hide a small child in 
the That would detachable 

3305
03:10:25,700 --> 03:10:29,200
sleeves slashed sleeves that 
showed contrasting fabric 

3306
03:10:29,200 --> 03:10:32,300
underneath and sleeves with so 
many buttons that getting 

3307
03:10:32,300 --> 03:10:34,500
dressed must have felt like 
assembling Furniture. 

3308
03:10:34,500 --> 03:10:37,100
But here's what's really 
interesting about medieval 

3309
03:10:37,100 --> 03:10:39,500
fashion. 
It was incredibly regulated 

3310
03:10:39,500 --> 03:10:43,200
sumptuary laws dictated who 
could wear what colors which 

3311
03:10:43,200 --> 03:10:47,300
Fabrics, how much fur, even how 
long your shoes could be, purple

3312
03:10:47,300 --> 03:10:50,400
was reserved for royalty. 
Certain Furs were forbidden to 

3313
03:10:50,408 --> 03:10:53,600
Merchants and the length of your
pointed shoes was directly 

3314
03:10:53,600 --> 03:10:56,900
proportional to your social 
status these laws existed, 

3315
03:10:56,900 --> 03:11:00,200
partly for economic reasons, 
keeping people from bankrupting 

3316
03:11:00,200 --> 03:11:03,600
themselves on clothing but 
mostly to maintain social order.

3317
03:11:04,300 --> 03:11:07,400
Your outfit was essentially your
ID card and announcing your 

3318
03:11:07,400 --> 03:11:10,700
place in society to everyone. 
You met it was like wearing your

3319
03:11:10,700 --> 03:11:13,200
LinkedIn profile except more 
colorful and with better 

3320
03:11:13,200 --> 03:11:16,500
accessories, the medieval period
gave us some of Fashions. 

3321
03:11:16,500 --> 03:11:19,800
Most enduring Mysteries like the
coat Hardy which fashion 

3322
03:11:19,800 --> 03:11:23,000
historians, still can't quite 
figure out how to put on the 

3323
03:11:23,000 --> 03:11:24,300
instructions have been lost to 
time. 

3324
03:11:24,300 --> 03:11:27,500
Leaving modern costume designers
to basically guess how these 

3325
03:11:27,500 --> 03:11:30,200
garments worked. 
It's like, finding a recipe that

3326
03:11:30,200 --> 03:11:34,300
just says assembling ingredients
fashionably Trade during this 

3327
03:11:34,300 --> 03:11:37,200
period, brought new fabrics and 
ideas from across the known 

3328
03:11:37,200 --> 03:11:40,300
world. 
Silk from Asia fine wools from 

3329
03:11:40,300 --> 03:11:44,300
England, exotic dies from 
everywhere in between medieval 

3330
03:11:44,300 --> 03:11:46,800
fashion was surprisingly 
International though, it 

3331
03:11:46,800 --> 03:11:49,500
traveled at the speed of horses 
and sailing ships rather than 

3332
03:11:49,500 --> 03:11:52,700
social media. 
By the end of the Middle Ages 

3333
03:11:52,700 --> 03:11:54,200
clothing. 
Had become incredibly 

3334
03:11:54,200 --> 03:11:56,700
sophisticated. 
The fit was precise. 

3335
03:11:56,700 --> 03:11:59,400
The construction was complex and
the social meanings were 

3336
03:11:59,400 --> 03:12:01,500
elaborate. 
It was the foundation for 

3337
03:12:01,500 --> 03:12:05,200
everything that would come next.
So, thankfully later periods 

3338
03:12:05,200 --> 03:12:07,900
would be less interested in 
requiring engineering degrees to

3339
03:12:07,900 --> 03:12:10,600
get dressed in the morning. 
The Renaissance didn't just give

3340
03:12:10,600 --> 03:12:13,300
us incredible art, 
groundbreaking science and 

3341
03:12:13,300 --> 03:12:16,400
revolutionary literature. 
It also gave us the idea that 

3342
03:12:16,400 --> 03:12:19,500
getting dressed in the morning, 
should be a creative act, worthy

3343
03:12:19,500 --> 03:12:23,500
of Michelangelo himself starting
around the 14th century in Italy

3344
03:12:23,500 --> 03:12:25,700
and spreading across Europe. 
Like the world's most 

3345
03:12:25,700 --> 03:12:28,800
fashionable virus the 
Renaissance brought a completely

3346
03:12:28,800 --> 03:12:32,100
new attitude to clothing where 
medieval fashion had been about 

3347
03:12:32,100 --> 03:12:34,100
showing your place in the rigid 
social hierarchy. 

3348
03:12:34,100 --> 03:12:38,100
Renaissance fashion was about 
showing your wealth, your taste,

3349
03:12:38,100 --> 03:12:41,600
your education, and your ability
to afford really excellent 

3350
03:12:41,600 --> 03:12:44,300
tailors. 
The Italians led the charge as 

3351
03:12:44,300 --> 03:12:46,100
they did with most Renaissance 
Innovations. 

3352
03:12:47,000 --> 03:12:49,400
Italian city-states, like, 
Florence and Venice became 

3353
03:12:49,400 --> 03:12:51,600
fashion capitals producing 
silks. 

3354
03:12:51,600 --> 03:12:54,600
So luxurious that other 
Europeans would travel hundreds 

3355
03:12:54,600 --> 03:12:56,900
of miles, just to shop Italian 
fashion. 

3356
03:12:56,900 --> 03:12:59,200
During this period was like 
wearing liquid sunlight, 

3357
03:12:59,200 --> 03:13:02,600
everything flowing gleaming and 
ridiculously beautiful. 

3358
03:13:03,700 --> 03:13:06,700
But it was the invention of new 
tailoring techniques that really

3359
03:13:06,700 --> 03:13:08,500
revolutionized Renaissance 
clothing. 

3360
03:13:08,500 --> 03:13:11,500
Medieval garments had been 
relatively loose and flowing 

3361
03:13:11,500 --> 03:13:14,800
Renaissance fashion introduced 
the Revolutionary concept of 

3362
03:13:14,800 --> 03:13:16,500
clothes that actually fit your 
body. 

3363
03:13:16,500 --> 03:13:19,600
This required much more 
sophisticated pattern, making 

3364
03:13:19,600 --> 03:13:22,900
cutting and sewing the century. 
It required the invention of 

3365
03:13:22,908 --> 03:13:25,700
tailoring as we know it today, 
the doublet became the 

3366
03:13:25,700 --> 03:13:28,500
foundation of men's fashion and 
it was a masterpiece of 

3367
03:13:28,500 --> 03:13:31,200
engineering disguised as 
clothing, a good doublet 

3368
03:13:31,200 --> 03:13:34,200
required dozens of pieces. 
Careful padding to create the 

3369
03:13:34,200 --> 03:13:37,900
ideal masculine silhouette and 
enough buttons to keep a small 

3370
03:13:37,900 --> 03:13:41,200
Factory in business men's legs 
were covered in hose that fit 

3371
03:13:41,200 --> 03:13:44,500
like a second skin, which meant 
Renaissance men were probably in

3372
03:13:44,500 --> 03:13:46,600
better shape than most modern 
gym in Enthusiast. 

3373
03:13:46,600 --> 03:13:50,200
Simply out of necessity women's 
fashion during the Renaissance 

3374
03:13:50,200 --> 03:13:53,700
was equally complex. 
But in different ways the gowns 

3375
03:13:53,700 --> 03:13:56,100
required internal structures 
that were basically wearable 

3376
03:13:56,100 --> 03:13:59,700
architecture, farthingale's 
created bell shaped skirts. 

3377
03:13:59,700 --> 03:14:03,000
That could span several feet in 
diameter corsets shaped the 

3378
03:14:03,000 --> 03:14:06,300
Torso into The fashionable 
silhouette Ruffs frame the face 

3379
03:14:06,300 --> 03:14:09,700
like fabric flowers, getting 
dressed was like putting on a 

3380
03:14:09,700 --> 03:14:11,600
building. 
But here's what's really 

3381
03:14:11,600 --> 03:14:13,100
remarkable about Renaissance 
fashion. 

3382
03:14:14,000 --> 03:14:18,100
Sheer creativity and Artistry 
involved Fabrics will works of 

3383
03:14:18,100 --> 03:14:20,600
art in themselves. 
Brigades with gold thread 

3384
03:14:20,600 --> 03:14:24,200
velvets with cut patterns silks 
with intricate designs. 

3385
03:14:24,200 --> 03:14:28,000
Garments were slashed to show, 
contrasting Fabrics underneath 

3386
03:14:28,000 --> 03:14:31,200
creating patterns that changed 
as the wearer moved. 

3387
03:14:31,900 --> 03:14:33,400
It was like wearing a 
kaleidoscope. 

3388
03:14:33,400 --> 03:14:36,400
The Renaissance also gave us 
Fashions relationship with 

3389
03:14:36,400 --> 03:14:39,400
celebrity culture. 
What the nobility War mattered 

3390
03:14:39,400 --> 03:14:43,000
enormously a news of the latest 
Court Fashions spread across 

3391
03:14:43,000 --> 03:14:45,100
Europe through detailed letters 
and prints. 

3392
03:14:45,900 --> 03:14:49,200
When Henry, the 8th decided to 
favor, a particular style of hat

3393
03:14:49,200 --> 03:14:52,100
hat, makers, across England 
suddenly got very busy. 

3394
03:14:52,100 --> 03:14:55,300
It was the 16th century 
equivalent of a red carpet 

3395
03:14:55,300 --> 03:14:56,600
fashion moment. 
Going viral. 

3396
03:14:56,600 --> 03:14:59,700
Color became incredibly 
important during this period 

3397
03:14:59,700 --> 03:15:03,000
partly because new dies and 
techniques, made a wide range of

3398
03:15:03,000 --> 03:15:06,100
colors available but also 
because different colors carried

3399
03:15:06,100 --> 03:15:10,100
complex meanings. 
Read suggested wealth and power 

3400
03:15:10,100 --> 03:15:13,100
blue was associated with loyalty
and virtue. 

3401
03:15:13,100 --> 03:15:16,400
Black became fashionable as the 
ultimate luxury color because it

3402
03:15:16,400 --> 03:15:21,000
was incredibly difficult to 
achieve a deep rich black that 

3403
03:15:21,000 --> 03:15:24,400
wouldn't fade the Renaissance. 
Also saw the rise of fashion as 

3404
03:15:24,400 --> 03:15:28,000
an international language 
Stylez, bred from court to court

3405
03:15:28,000 --> 03:15:32,100
country to Country, creating the
first truly, European fashion 

3406
03:15:32,100 --> 03:15:35,000
trends addressed style that 
started in the Spanish Court 

3407
03:15:35,000 --> 03:15:37,200
might appear in modified form in
the French Court. 

3408
03:15:37,200 --> 03:15:40,200
Six months later then influence 
in English fashion, The 

3409
03:15:40,200 --> 03:15:48,700
Following Season the Clothing, 
wasn't just functional or even 

3410
03:15:48,700 --> 03:15:51,700
just beautiful. 
It could be creative Innovative 

3411
03:15:51,700 --> 03:15:54,300
expressive. 
It can make statements about the

3412
03:15:54,300 --> 03:15:57,600
wearer's values, education, and 
aesthetic sensibilities. 

3413
03:15:57,600 --> 03:16:01,100
This period laid, the groundwork
for everything that would follow

3414
03:16:01,100 --> 03:16:04,000
in fashion history. 
The concept of seasonal changes,

3415
03:16:04,000 --> 03:16:07,900
the importance of fit, the role 
of celebrity influence, the 

3416
03:16:07,900 --> 03:16:11,200
internationalization of style. 
All of these started during the 

3417
03:16:11,208 --> 03:16:14,200
Renaissance when Europeans 
decided that life was too short 

3418
03:16:14,200 --> 03:16:17,400
for boring clothes. 
As we move into the 1600s and 

3419
03:16:17,408 --> 03:16:20,900
1700s fashion entered. 
What we might call its more is 

3420
03:16:20,900 --> 03:16:23,500
more phase. 
If Renaissance clothing was like

3421
03:16:23,500 --> 03:16:26,400
wearing art, Brock and Rico 
fashion was like, wearing an 

3422
03:16:26,400 --> 03:16:29,800
entire Art Museum complete with 
guided tours and gift shop. 

3423
03:16:29,800 --> 03:16:33,200
The 17th century started with 
what fashion historians 

3424
03:16:33,200 --> 03:16:36,900
politely, call elaborate 
clothing for which anyone with 

3425
03:16:36,900 --> 03:16:39,700
modern sensibilities would 
recognize as completely over the

3426
03:16:39,700 --> 03:16:40,600
top. 
Men. 

3427
03:16:40,600 --> 03:16:42,300
Wore doublets with so much 
padding. 

3428
03:16:42,300 --> 03:16:44,300
They looked like they were 
wearing life preservers. 

3429
03:16:45,100 --> 03:16:47,800
Women's skirts became so wide 
that doorways had to be 

3430
03:16:47,800 --> 03:16:50,600
navigated sideways. 
It was the period when fashion 

3431
03:16:50,600 --> 03:16:53,200
designers, apparently looked at 
practical clothing and asked. 

3432
03:16:54,000 --> 03:16:57,100
But how can we make this much 
more complicated, the court of 

3433
03:16:57,100 --> 03:17:00,000
Louis, the 14th of Versailles 
became the epicenter of European

3434
03:17:00,000 --> 03:17:02,600
fashion and Lewis took the job 
seriously. 

3435
03:17:02,600 --> 03:17:06,300
He understood that fashion was 
politics and he used clothing as

3436
03:17:06,300 --> 03:17:09,100
a tool of power. 
The more elaborate and 

3437
03:17:09,100 --> 03:17:12,100
expensive, your outfit, the 
higher your status at court, it 

3438
03:17:12,100 --> 03:17:15,000
was like a very expensive, very 
beautiful arms race. 

3439
03:17:15,000 --> 03:17:19,200
Except in weapons, people were 
competing with embroidered silk 

3440
03:17:19,200 --> 03:17:22,400
and precious gems men's fashion 
during this period was 

3441
03:17:22,400 --> 03:17:25,100
particularly fascinating because
it was so unapologetically 

3442
03:17:25,100 --> 03:17:28,000
decorative. 
Men were Silk Stockings 

3443
03:17:28,000 --> 03:17:31,400
high-heeled shoes yes high heels
were originally for men, 

3444
03:17:31,400 --> 03:17:35,400
elaborate wigs and enough lace 
to stock a bridal shop, the 

3445
03:17:35,400 --> 03:17:37,700
modern idea that men's clothing 
should be simple, and 

3446
03:17:37,700 --> 03:17:41,300
understated would have battled a
17th century gentleman who saw 

3447
03:17:41,300 --> 03:17:43,500
his outfit as a canvas for 
artistic expression. 

3448
03:17:44,500 --> 03:17:47,900
The Perry wig or powdered wig 
became the ultimate status 

3449
03:17:47,900 --> 03:17:50,500
symbol for men. 
These weren't just hair pieces. 

3450
03:17:50,500 --> 03:17:53,800
They were architectural, Marvels
that could cost as much as a 

3451
03:17:53,800 --> 03:17:56,500
house and required daily 
maintenance by skilled 

3452
03:17:56,500 --> 03:17:59,100
professionals. 
Wealthy men would own multiple 

3453
03:17:59,100 --> 03:18:02,300
wigs for different occasions, 
like a very expensive hat 

3454
03:18:02,300 --> 03:18:04,500
collection that happened to be 
made of human hair. 

3455
03:18:05,700 --> 03:18:08,500
Women's fashion reached new 
heights of complexity during the

3456
03:18:08,500 --> 03:18:12,400
RICO period of the 18th century.
The panniers side Hoops that 

3457
03:18:12,408 --> 03:18:16,200
made skirts extend horizontally 
created Silhouettes so wide that

3458
03:18:16,200 --> 03:18:19,300
two women couldn't walk through 
a doorway at the same time Court

3459
03:18:19,300 --> 03:18:21,500
dresses required. 
So much fabric that they were 

3460
03:18:21,500 --> 03:18:24,400
essentially wearable buildings 
complete with Structural 

3461
03:18:24,400 --> 03:18:26,300
Engineering to keep everything 
upright. 

3462
03:18:27,100 --> 03:18:30,800
But the real showstopper was the
hair 18th century hairstyling 

3463
03:18:30,800 --> 03:18:33,500
was like topri gardening except 
on people's heads. 

3464
03:18:34,200 --> 03:18:37,500
Women's hairstyles could be 
several feet tall decorated with

3465
03:18:37,500 --> 03:18:40,400
ribbons flowers. 
Feathers and sometimes entire 

3466
03:18:40,400 --> 03:18:43,100
miniature scenes. 
There are historical accounts of

3467
03:18:43,100 --> 03:18:46,400
hairstyles that included model, 
ships, miniature Gardens and 

3468
03:18:46,400 --> 03:18:50,100
even small cages with live. 
Birds the Cosmetics of this 

3469
03:18:50,100 --> 03:18:53,400
period, were equally dramatic, 
both men and women wore white 

3470
03:18:53,408 --> 03:18:56,400
face powder made from lead, 
which was probably not great for

3471
03:18:56,400 --> 03:18:59,400
their health, right. 
Red Rouge and Beauty, patches 

3472
03:18:59,400 --> 03:19:03,300
small pieces of silk, or velvet 
cut into shapes like, stars or 

3473
03:19:03,300 --> 03:19:06,900
crescents and glued to the face.
It was like wearing stickers of 

3474
03:19:06,900 --> 03:19:08,700
stickers, were considered the 
height of sophistication. 

3475
03:19:08,700 --> 03:19:12,400
The 18th century also saw the 
rise of fashion magazines and 

3476
03:19:12,400 --> 03:19:15,000
fashion dolls. 
Small dolls dressed in the 

3477
03:19:15,000 --> 03:19:17,500
latest style that was sent 
between fashion capitals to 

3478
03:19:17,500 --> 03:19:20,100
spread new trends. 
These were the ancestors of 

3479
03:19:20,100 --> 03:19:23,100
modern fashion for photography 
and social media influences. 

3480
03:19:23,100 --> 03:19:26,600
Though considerably smaller and 
requiring more delicate shipping

3481
03:19:26,600 --> 03:19:28,800
Arrangements. 
But perhaps the most interesting

3482
03:19:28,800 --> 03:19:31,800
aspect of the 18th century 
fashion was how it reflected the

3483
03:19:31,800 --> 03:19:34,100
philosophy of the time, the 
elaborate deck. 

3484
03:19:34,200 --> 03:19:37,500
The emphasis on office over 
nature, the celebration of 

3485
03:19:37,508 --> 03:19:40,700
luxury and refinement. 
All of this reflected in 

3486
03:19:40,700 --> 03:19:44,500
lightning and ideas about 
civilization progress, and the 

3487
03:19:44,500 --> 03:19:46,400
power of human. 
Creativity to improve upon 

3488
03:19:46,400 --> 03:19:48,600
nature. 
Of course, all this fashion came

3489
03:19:48,600 --> 03:19:50,600
with a price, both literally and
figuratively. 

3490
03:19:51,800 --> 03:19:54,300
The cost of maintaining an 18th 
century wardrobe was 

3491
03:19:54,300 --> 03:19:57,100
astronomical and the time 
required for dressing and 

3492
03:19:57,100 --> 03:20:00,000
grooming could take hours 
wealthy people, essentially 

3493
03:20:00,000 --> 03:20:02,200
needed staff just to get dressed
in the morning. 

3494
03:20:02,900 --> 03:20:05,400
By the end of the 18th century. 
This elaborate system was 

3495
03:20:05,400 --> 03:20:08,600
beginning to crack the French 
Revolution, put a sudden and 

3496
03:20:08,608 --> 03:20:11,000
violent end to the most extreme 
Court Fashions. 

3497
03:20:11,000 --> 03:20:14,100
And a new philosophy was 
emerging that valued Simplicity,

3498
03:20:14,100 --> 03:20:17,000
naturalness and practicality 
over elaborate artifice. 

3499
03:20:17,000 --> 03:20:20,400
But before we move on to that 
revolutionary change, take a 

3500
03:20:20,400 --> 03:20:23,200
moment to appreciate the sheer 
or dacy of the 18th century 

3501
03:20:23,200 --> 03:20:25,300
fashion. 
It was clothing that announced 

3502
03:20:25,300 --> 03:20:28,900
loudly and proudly that the war 
had so much money and Leisure 

3503
03:20:28,900 --> 03:20:31,400
Time that they could afford to 
dress like a walking work of 

3504
03:20:31,400 --> 03:20:34,100
art, even if it meant, they 
couldn't sit down properly or 

3505
03:20:34,100 --> 03:20:37,000
fit through doorways. 
The late 18th and early 19th 

3506
03:20:37,000 --> 03:20:39,300
centuries brought political 
revolution across Europe and 

3507
03:20:39,300 --> 03:20:41,900
America and fashion, 
revolution's, followed close 

3508
03:20:41,900 --> 03:20:44,000
behind. 
It was the period when people 

3509
03:20:44,000 --> 03:20:46,000
looked at those elaborate 18th 
century Court. 

3510
03:20:46,000 --> 03:20:49,300
Costumes and said, you know 
what, maybe wearing a small 

3511
03:20:49,300 --> 03:20:51,400
building on my head isn't the 
best way to show. 

3512
03:20:51,400 --> 03:20:55,700
I'm in, touch with the people. 
The French Revolution of 1789 

3513
03:20:55,700 --> 03:20:59,200
didn't just change government. 
It completely transformed. 

3514
03:20:59,200 --> 03:21:02,100
What people wore, it was the 
ultimate fashion do-over 

3515
03:21:02,100 --> 03:21:04,600
motivated by actual fear for 
your life. 

3516
03:21:04,600 --> 03:21:07,600
The revolutionary period 
introduced, what we might call 

3517
03:21:07,600 --> 03:21:11,300
democracy dress, Simpler more 
practical clothing that 

3518
03:21:11,300 --> 03:21:14,200
suggested, you are a 
hard-working citizen rather than

3519
03:21:14,200 --> 03:21:17,900
a parasitic Aristocrat. 
The song culotte literally, 

3520
03:21:17,900 --> 03:21:20,800
without knee breeches, got their
name from rejecting. 

3521
03:21:20,800 --> 03:21:23,700
The silk knee breeches worn, by 
the upper classes in favor of 

3522
03:21:23,700 --> 03:21:26,300
practical long trousers. 
It was the first time in 

3523
03:21:26,300 --> 03:21:29,000
European history that pants 
became a political statement, 

3524
03:21:29,000 --> 03:21:32,800
women's fashion, underwent, an 
equally dramatic transformation,

3525
03:21:32,800 --> 03:21:35,300
The Enormous panniers and 
elaborate hairstyles 

3526
03:21:35,300 --> 03:21:38,900
disappeared, almost overnight 
replaced by simple white muslin.

3527
03:21:38,900 --> 03:21:41,600
Dresses inspired by classical 
Greek and Roman clothing. 

3528
03:21:41,600 --> 03:21:44,700
The Empire waistline, which sat 
just below the bust. 

3529
03:21:44,700 --> 03:21:47,000
Became fashionable creating a 
silhouette. 

3530
03:21:47,000 --> 03:21:48,800
That was both elegant and 
practical. 

3531
03:21:49,600 --> 03:21:52,300
This neoclassical style wasn't 
just about looking good. 

3532
03:21:52,300 --> 03:21:55,900
It was about embodying in 
lightning values, the simple 

3533
03:21:55,900 --> 03:21:59,800
flowing lines were supposed to 
suggest virtue reason and 

3534
03:21:59,800 --> 03:22:02,900
natural beauty. 
Everything, the old aristocratic

3535
03:22:02,900 --> 03:22:05,300
style was not. 
It was like, wearing your 

3536
03:22:05,300 --> 03:22:09,000
political philosophy, Napoleon 
Bonaparte, never want to miss an

3537
03:22:09,000 --> 03:22:12,300
opportunity for drama turned 
fashion into a tool of Empire 

3538
03:22:12,300 --> 03:22:14,800
Building. 
He established a court at the 

3539
03:22:14,800 --> 03:22:17,500
trailer that was almost as 
elaborate as the old Royal 

3540
03:22:17,500 --> 03:22:19,400
Court. 
But with better marketing, 

3541
03:22:19,400 --> 03:22:22,900
Napoleonic fashion was designed 
to suggest both luxury and 

3542
03:22:22,900 --> 03:22:23,800
Military. 
Efficiency. 

3543
03:22:23,800 --> 03:22:28,700
Think Roman Emperor meets modern
General, The Empire period gave 

3544
03:22:28,700 --> 03:22:30,900
us some of Fashion's most 
enduring Silhouettes. 

3545
03:22:30,900 --> 03:22:34,100
The high-waisted dress, became a
classic that would return again 

3546
03:22:34,100 --> 03:22:37,400
and again in later decades the 
military influence in men's 

3547
03:22:37,400 --> 03:22:40,600
fashion, all those brass 
buttons, frogging and structured

3548
03:22:40,600 --> 03:22:44,100
shoulders established a template
for masculine dress that we 

3549
03:22:44,108 --> 03:22:47,400
still see today in everything 
from military, uniforms to 

3550
03:22:47,400 --> 03:22:50,000
business suits. 
But perhaps the most interesting

3551
03:22:50,000 --> 03:22:52,900
development of this period was 
how fashion became International

3552
03:22:52,900 --> 03:22:57,000
in a completely new way. 
Napoleon's conquests spread 

3553
03:22:57,000 --> 03:23:00,600
French fashion across Europe but
also brought new influences back

3554
03:23:00,600 --> 03:23:05,100
to Paris Spanish, man, tears, 
Russian, Furs Egyptian, motifs 

3555
03:23:05,100 --> 03:23:07,100
after Napoleon's campaigns 
there. 

3556
03:23:07,900 --> 03:23:11,200
European fashion became a fusion
Cuisine of style from across the

3557
03:23:11,200 --> 03:23:14,500
continent and Beyond. 
The Industrial Revolution was 

3558
03:23:14,500 --> 03:23:17,800
beginning to change how clothes 
were made to While most garments

3559
03:23:17,800 --> 03:23:20,700
were still handsome, new 
machines could produce Fabrics 

3560
03:23:20,700 --> 03:23:23,600
faster and more cheaply than 
ever before, Cochran in 

3561
03:23:23,600 --> 03:23:26,400
particular, became much more 
affordable and available 

3562
03:23:26,400 --> 03:23:29,600
democratizing fashion in ways 
that would have been impossible 

3563
03:23:29,600 --> 03:23:33,200
in early centuries. 
This period also saw the rise of

3564
03:23:33,200 --> 03:23:34,800
the fashion press as we know it 
today. 

3565
03:23:34,800 --> 03:23:38,800
Fashion magazines like Journal 
de damn ID mods provided 

3566
03:23:38,800 --> 03:23:41,300
detailed illustrations and 
descriptions of the latest 

3567
03:23:41,300 --> 03:23:44,600
Styles spreading fashion trends 
faster than ever before. 

3568
03:23:44,600 --> 03:23:48,000
It was the beginning of fashion 
media though their Instagram 

3569
03:23:48,000 --> 03:23:50,700
followers were measured in 
hundreds rather than Millions 

3570
03:23:50,700 --> 03:23:53,800
the Romantic Movement that 
emerged in the early 19th 

3571
03:23:53,800 --> 03:23:55,700
century. 
Brought yet another fashion 

3572
03:23:55,700 --> 03:23:58,800
Revolution, where neoclassical 
style had been about reason and 

3573
03:23:58,800 --> 03:24:02,100
simplicity romantic fashion, 
celebrated emotion, 

3574
03:24:02,100 --> 03:24:04,700
individualism and dramatic 
effect. 

3575
03:24:05,600 --> 03:24:09,200
Sleeves got bigger, skirts, got 
Fuller and everything got more 

3576
03:24:09,200 --> 03:24:12,900
decorative. 
By the 1820s and 1830s women's 

3577
03:24:12,900 --> 03:24:16,500
fashion had swung back to toward
complexity though, in new ways, 

3578
03:24:17,500 --> 03:24:20,300
Crinoline, the structured 
underskirt that created a 

3579
03:24:20,300 --> 03:24:23,300
bell-shaped silhouette was the 
great innovation of the period. 

3580
03:24:23,300 --> 03:24:27,100
It was like wearing a small tent
but an incredibly fashionable 

3581
03:24:27,100 --> 03:24:30,100
tent that allowed women to move 
more freely than the restrictive

3582
03:24:30,100 --> 03:24:33,000
clothing of earlier periods, 
this revolutionary period 

3583
03:24:33,000 --> 03:24:35,100
established, many of the 
principles that would guide 

3584
03:24:35,100 --> 03:24:38,200
fashion for the next Century. 
The idea that clothing should 

3585
03:24:38,200 --> 03:24:41,900
reflect contemporary values that
fashion could be both, beautiful

3586
03:24:41,900 --> 03:24:45,500
and practical and that style 
should be accessible to more 

3587
03:24:45,500 --> 03:24:48,400
than just the wealthy Elite. 
It was the beginning of modern 

3588
03:24:48,400 --> 03:24:51,200
fashion as we know it today. 
Even if the clothes themselves 

3589
03:24:51,200 --> 03:24:54,500
look pretty foreign to modernize
the Victorian era. 

3590
03:24:54,500 --> 03:24:59,400
Roughly 1837 to 1901 was like 
Fashions adolescent phase. 

3591
03:24:59,400 --> 03:25:02,800
Everything was dramatic 
complicated and slightly 

3592
03:25:02,800 --> 03:25:06,000
embarrassing and retrospect, but
also kind of impressive in its 

3593
03:25:06,000 --> 03:25:09,400
sheer ambition, Queen Victoria's
reign coincided with the 

3594
03:25:09,400 --> 03:25:12,700
Industrial Revolution hitting 
its stride, which meant that for

3595
03:25:12,700 --> 03:25:15,800
the first time in human history,
the middle class could afford to

3596
03:25:15,808 --> 03:25:18,900
dress almost as elaborately. 
As the wealthy, this was 

3597
03:25:18,900 --> 03:25:21,900
wonderful news for textile 
manufacturers and absolutely 

3598
03:25:21,900 --> 03:25:25,400
terrible news for anyone who 
valued Simplicity and clothing. 

3599
03:25:26,300 --> 03:25:28,800
The Victorian silhouette for 
women was essentially an 

3600
03:25:28,800 --> 03:25:30,500
exercise in architectural 
engineering. 

3601
03:25:30,500 --> 03:25:33,800
The goal was to create an 
hourglass figure, so dramatic 

3602
03:25:33,800 --> 03:25:37,100
that it defied Anatomy. 
This required corsets, that 

3603
03:25:37,100 --> 03:25:40,100
could literally reshape the 
human torso bustles. 

3604
03:25:40,100 --> 03:25:43,100
That could support several yards
of fabric and an undergarment 

3605
03:25:43,100 --> 03:25:45,200
system. 
So complex, it came with its own

3606
03:25:45,200 --> 03:25:48,000
instruction manual, the 
crinoline reached its peak 

3607
03:25:48,000 --> 03:25:50,800
During the period creating 
skirts that could measure up to 

3608
03:25:50,800 --> 03:25:54,800
six feet in diameter. 
Imagine trying to navigate a 

3609
03:25:54,800 --> 03:25:58,300
Victorian parlor. 
Where was a fabric geodesic? 

3610
03:25:58,300 --> 03:26:01,800
Dome around your waist doorways,
became tactical challenges 

3611
03:26:01,800 --> 03:26:03,800
sitting required, careful 
planning. 

3612
03:26:04,600 --> 03:26:07,000
Into a carriage was like, 
solving a geometry problem. 

3613
03:26:08,000 --> 03:26:10,000
And here's what's really 
remarkable about Victorian 

3614
03:26:10,000 --> 03:26:12,200
fashion. 
The sheer amount of work that 

3615
03:26:12,200 --> 03:26:15,600
went into every garment, a 
typical Victorian dress might 

3616
03:26:15,600 --> 03:26:19,200
have hundreds of buttons, miles 
of trim, intricate pleating, 

3617
03:26:19,200 --> 03:26:22,500
elaborate embroidery and enough 
fabric to upholster several 

3618
03:26:22,500 --> 03:26:25,000
chairs. 
Each dress was essentially a 

3619
03:26:25,000 --> 03:26:27,600
masterpiece of textile 
craftsmanship, even if the 

3620
03:26:27,600 --> 03:26:30,300
overall effect was sometimes 
like wearing a curtain from a 

3621
03:26:30,300 --> 03:26:33,300
very expensive hotel, mens 
fashion during the Victorian 

3622
03:26:33,300 --> 03:26:36,300
era, was more restrained but 
equally complex in his own way, 

3623
03:26:36,300 --> 03:26:40,000
the modern business suit was 
invented during this period over

3624
03:26:40,000 --> 03:26:41,700
Victorian. 
Men's suits, had more pieces 

3625
03:26:41,700 --> 03:26:44,000
than a Swiss watch. 
There were different coaches for

3626
03:26:44,000 --> 03:26:46,600
different times of day. 
Different trials, for different 

3627
03:26:46,600 --> 03:26:49,300
occasions and enough accessories
to stock a small store. 

3628
03:26:50,300 --> 03:26:52,900
The Victorian obsession with 
propriety meant that clothing, 

3629
03:26:52,900 --> 03:26:55,700
had to cover everything. 
Women's dresses had sleeves that

3630
03:26:55,700 --> 03:26:58,800
covered the arms, completely 
skirts, that touched the ground 

3631
03:26:58,800 --> 03:27:02,200
and necklines that barely showed
the collarbone, the amount of 

3632
03:27:02,200 --> 03:27:04,800
Skin showing in proper. 
Victorian dress was roughly 

3633
03:27:04,800 --> 03:27:07,400
equivalent to what you might see
in a modern business meeting 

3634
03:27:07,400 --> 03:27:10,600
except with more Fabric and 
better posture, but the 

3635
03:27:10,600 --> 03:27:13,600
victorians also invented the 
concept of specialized clothing 

3636
03:27:13,600 --> 03:27:17,100
for specific activities. 
Before this period, you 

3637
03:27:17,100 --> 03:27:20,900
basically had every day clothes 
and fancy clothes the victorians

3638
03:27:20,900 --> 03:27:23,800
created riding habits for 
horseback riding walking 

3639
03:27:23,800 --> 03:27:27,100
dresses, for afternoon, strolls 
teals for informal, 

3640
03:27:27,100 --> 03:27:29,900
entertaining, and ball gowns for
formal occasions. 

3641
03:27:29,900 --> 03:27:32,900
They essentially invented the 
modern concept of having 

3642
03:27:32,900 --> 03:27:35,100
different outfits for different 
parts of your life. 

3643
03:27:35,900 --> 03:27:38,800
The Industrial Revolution made 
all of this possible by creating

3644
03:27:38,800 --> 03:27:42,700
new Fabrics, new dies and new 
manufacturing techniques. 

3645
03:27:42,700 --> 03:27:45,800
Haneline dies produced colors 
that were brighter and more 

3646
03:27:45,800 --> 03:27:47,800
stable than anything previously 
available. 

3647
03:27:48,800 --> 03:27:52,800
The sewing machine invented in 
the 1840s revolutionized garment

3648
03:27:52,800 --> 03:27:54,800
construction. 
Ready to wear clothing? 

3649
03:27:54,800 --> 03:27:56,800
Began to appear in stores, 
though? 

3650
03:27:56,800 --> 03:27:59,500
It was still considered inferior
to custom-made garments 

3651
03:27:59,500 --> 03:28:02,700
Children's Fashion, during the 
Victorian era, deserve, special 

3652
03:28:02,700 --> 03:28:05,600
mention, because it was 
particularly elaborate and often

3653
03:28:05,600 --> 03:28:08,300
fairly impractical. 
Victorian children were 

3654
03:28:08,300 --> 03:28:11,600
essentially dressed as mixture. 
Adults complete with all the 

3655
03:28:11,600 --> 03:28:15,100
restrictive undergarments, and 
complex layering systems little 

3656
03:28:15,100 --> 03:28:17,900
girls were corsets. 
Little boys, were elaborate 

3657
03:28:17,900 --> 03:28:20,500
suits with knee breeches, and 
everyone wore clothing. 

3658
03:28:20,500 --> 03:28:22,700
That would make modern parents 
weep at the laundry. 

3659
03:28:22,700 --> 03:28:26,400
Implications, the Victorian era 
gave us the concept of mourning 

3660
03:28:26,400 --> 03:28:28,700
dress. 
Elaborate rules about what to 

3661
03:28:28,700 --> 03:28:31,500
wear and for how long after 
someone died, Queen Victoria 

3662
03:28:31,500 --> 03:28:35,500
herself after the death of 
Prince Albert, 1861 or morning 

3663
03:28:35,500 --> 03:28:38,400
dress for the rest of her life, 
which was another 40 years. 

3664
03:28:38,400 --> 03:28:41,000
The fashion industry, 
essentially created a whole 

3665
03:28:41,000 --> 03:28:44,500
subcategory of clothing for 
grief, complete with degrees of 

3666
03:28:44,500 --> 03:28:46,200
mourning. 
That determined how much black 

3667
03:28:46,200 --> 03:28:48,300
you had to wear. 
And when you could start adding 

3668
03:28:48,300 --> 03:28:49,800
other Colors back in to your 
wardrobe. 

3669
03:28:49,800 --> 03:28:53,000
By the end of the Victorian era,
fashion had reached a level of 

3670
03:28:53,008 --> 03:28:54,800
complexity that was becoming 
unsustainable. 

3671
03:28:55,700 --> 03:28:59,200
Getting dressed took hours 
maintaining a proper wardrobe 

3672
03:28:59,200 --> 03:29:02,500
required significant staff. 
The physical restrictions of the

3673
03:29:02,508 --> 03:29:04,900
clothing were beginning to 
conflict with new ideas about 

3674
03:29:04,900 --> 03:29:08,500
women's roles and activities. 
The stage was set for a fashion 

3675
03:29:08,500 --> 03:29:11,200
Revolution, that would sweep 
away, much of this elaborate 

3676
03:29:11,200 --> 03:29:14,200
system, and replace it with 
something more practical more, 

3677
03:29:14,200 --> 03:29:17,200
modern and significantly easier 
to put on in the morning. 

3678
03:29:17,200 --> 03:29:20,300
But before that happened, the 
Victorian era gave us some of 

3679
03:29:20,300 --> 03:29:22,900
Fashion's most memorable and 
most photographed moments. 

3680
03:29:22,900 --> 03:29:25,600
Even if many of those 
photographs required, the 

3681
03:29:25,600 --> 03:29:29,600
subjects to stand very still for
very long periods of time as the

3682
03:29:29,600 --> 03:29:32,600
19th century, Drew to a close 
and the 20th century began. 

3683
03:29:32,600 --> 03:29:36,100
Fashion, underwent, one of its 
most dramatic Transformations. 

3684
03:29:36,100 --> 03:29:39,700
It was as if the entire industry
looked at Victorian clothing and

3685
03:29:39,700 --> 03:29:43,100
collectively asked, but what if 
we could actually move while 

3686
03:29:43,100 --> 03:29:46,700
wearing our clothes? 
The changes began gradually in 

3687
03:29:46,700 --> 03:29:49,200
the 1890s with what was called 
the new woman movement. 

3688
03:29:49,200 --> 03:29:51,500
These were women who wanted to 
ride bicycles. 

3689
03:29:51,500 --> 03:29:55,100
Play tennis work, outside the 
home, and generally participate,

3690
03:29:55,100 --> 03:29:57,700
in life without requiring 
architectural, support garments,

3691
03:29:57,700 --> 03:30:01,100
the fashion industry, sensing an
opportunity began, creating 

3692
03:30:01,100 --> 03:30:03,600
clothes that acknowledged that 
women might want to use their 

3693
03:30:03,600 --> 03:30:06,500
bodies for something other than 
standing gracefully in parlors 

3694
03:30:06,500 --> 03:30:10,300
the s-curve course it became 
popular in the early 1900s which

3695
03:30:10,300 --> 03:30:12,700
created a silhouette that 
thrusts the chest forward and 

3696
03:30:12,700 --> 03:30:15,000
the hips back. 
While this might not sound like 

3697
03:30:15,000 --> 03:30:18,000
progress, it actually 
represented a move away from the

3698
03:30:18,000 --> 03:30:21,400
Titleist restriction of the 
Victorian era, it was like 

3699
03:30:21,400 --> 03:30:24,500
Fashions version of glass nosed.
A gradual loosening of 

3700
03:30:24,508 --> 03:30:27,600
restrictions Paul pour a French 
designer. 

3701
03:30:27,600 --> 03:30:31,300
Became the revolutionary leader 
of fashion, Liberation in 1906. 

3702
03:30:31,300 --> 03:30:34,700
He introduced designs that 
completely eliminated the corset

3703
03:30:34,700 --> 03:30:37,400
replacing, the structured, 
Victorian silhouette with 

3704
03:30:37,400 --> 03:30:40,700
flowing column and addresses 
inspired by anciently Orient. 

3705
03:30:40,700 --> 03:30:43,900
It was as if he took a pair of 
scissors to 100 Years of fashion

3706
03:30:43,900 --> 03:30:47,600
tradition and said Let's start 
over quarries, designs were 

3707
03:30:47,600 --> 03:30:51,200
Radical for their time, high 
waist lines, narrow, skirts, and

3708
03:30:51,200 --> 03:30:53,600
no corsets. 
Women could actually breathe 

3709
03:30:53,600 --> 03:30:56,500
while wearing them, which was a 
refreshing change from Victorian

3710
03:30:56,500 --> 03:30:59,700
dress. 
His oriental-inspired designs 

3711
03:30:59,700 --> 03:31:03,100
with their Rich colors and 
exotic patterns introduced 

3712
03:31:03,100 --> 03:31:06,200
European women to a completely 
different aesthetic philosophy. 

3713
03:31:06,200 --> 03:31:10,100
The Hubble skirt, one of Paris. 
Most famous Innovations was both

3714
03:31:10,100 --> 03:31:13,500
liberating and restricting at 
the same time while it freed 

3715
03:31:13,500 --> 03:31:15,200
women from corsets and 
crinolines. 

3716
03:31:15,200 --> 03:31:18,000
It was so narrow at the ankles 
that walking required. 

3717
03:31:18,000 --> 03:31:21,200
Small, careful steps. 
It was like trading one set of 

3718
03:31:21,208 --> 03:31:23,300
restrictions for another. 
But at least the new 

3719
03:31:23,300 --> 03:31:25,700
restrictions didn't require 
Structural Engineering. 

3720
03:31:26,700 --> 03:31:29,500
World War One accelerated, these
fashion changes dramatically 

3721
03:31:29,500 --> 03:31:32,400
with men away at War and women 
entering the workforce. 

3722
03:31:32,400 --> 03:31:36,100
In unprecedented numbers. 
Practical clothing became a 

3723
03:31:36,100 --> 03:31:39,200
necessity rather than a choice. 
The elaborate time-consuming 

3724
03:31:39,200 --> 03:31:42,300
dress of the pre-war period, was
simply incompatible with working

3725
03:31:42,300 --> 03:31:45,100
in factories, driving, 
ambulance's, or managing 

3726
03:31:45,100 --> 03:31:48,500
businesses. 
Hemlines began to rise, first, 

3727
03:31:48,500 --> 03:31:51,100
just enough to show the ankle 
then gradually higher. 

3728
03:31:51,100 --> 03:31:54,200
This might seem like a small 
change, but it was 

3729
03:31:54,200 --> 03:31:57,100
revolutionary. 
For the first time in Western 

3730
03:31:57,100 --> 03:31:59,400
fashion. 
Since ancient Greece, women's 

3731
03:31:59,400 --> 03:32:03,300
legs became visible in public. 
It was a seismic shift in social

3732
03:32:03,300 --> 03:32:05,500
norms disguised as a fashion 
trend. 

3733
03:32:05,500 --> 03:32:07,900
The war also changed men's 
fashion though. 

3734
03:32:07,900 --> 03:32:11,500
More subtly military uniforms 
influenced civilian clothing 

3735
03:32:11,500 --> 03:32:14,100
making men's suits more 
structured and functional. 

3736
03:32:14,100 --> 03:32:17,200
The three-piece suit became 
standardized during this period 

3737
03:32:17,200 --> 03:32:19,900
establishing a template for 
men's business dress. 

3738
03:32:19,900 --> 03:32:23,400
That would last for decades hair
became shorter and simpler. 

3739
03:32:23,400 --> 03:32:26,700
The elaborate hairstyles of the 
Victorian era which required 

3740
03:32:26,700 --> 03:32:29,400
hours of Maintenance and 
multiple hair pieces were 

3741
03:32:29,400 --> 03:32:31,300
replaced by more manageable 
Styles. 

3742
03:32:31,300 --> 03:32:34,500
This was partly practical. 
Shorter hair was easier to 

3743
03:32:34,500 --> 03:32:37,400
maintain while working in 
factories or hospitals, but it 

3744
03:32:37,400 --> 03:32:39,200
was all. 
So symbolic of women's changing 

3745
03:32:39,200 --> 03:32:42,400
roles in society, the 
introduction of new synthetic 

3746
03:32:42,400 --> 03:32:45,600
fabrics during this period, also
revolutionized, what people 

3747
03:32:45,600 --> 03:32:48,200
could wear. 
On the first commercial 

3748
03:32:48,200 --> 03:32:51,900
successful, synthetic fiber was 
developed in the early 1900s, 

3749
03:32:51,900 --> 03:32:55,900
while it wasn't perfect early on
had a tendency to shrink 

3750
03:32:55,900 --> 03:32:58,600
dramatically when washed it. 
Offered an affordable 

3751
03:32:58,600 --> 03:33:01,900
alternative to Silk and opened 
up new possibilities for garment

3752
03:33:01,900 --> 03:33:05,000
design. 
By 1910, fashion Magazine's were

3753
03:33:05,000 --> 03:33:06,900
already predicting that. 
The new century would bring 

3754
03:33:06,900 --> 03:33:10,100
clothing that was more 
practical, more comfortable, and

3755
03:33:10,100 --> 03:33:11,700
more suited to active 
Lifestyles. 

3756
03:33:11,700 --> 03:33:15,300
They had no idea how right? 
They were or how dramatically 

3757
03:33:15,300 --> 03:33:17,600
the next decade would accelerate
these changes. 

3758
03:33:18,800 --> 03:33:22,000
The period just before World War
One represented, a fascinating 

3759
03:33:22,000 --> 03:33:24,400
transition moment. 
In fashion history, you could 

3760
03:33:24,400 --> 03:33:26,800
see both the Old and the new 
existing simultaneously 

3761
03:33:26,800 --> 03:33:30,800
elaborate Edwardian gowns 
sharing space with Paris, 

3762
03:33:30,800 --> 03:33:34,400
revolutionary designs, corseted 
ladies, walking alongside the 

3763
03:33:34,400 --> 03:33:37,200
first women to embrace the new 
natural silhouette. 

3764
03:33:37,200 --> 03:33:40,500
It was like watching fashion, 
hold its breath, before taking a

3765
03:33:40,500 --> 03:33:43,100
giant leap into modernity, the 
restrictive. 

3766
03:33:43,100 --> 03:33:46,000
Elaborate clothing of the past 
was still beautiful, still 

3767
03:33:46,000 --> 03:33:49,500
masterfully crafted, but it was 
beginning to look like a museum 

3768
03:33:49,500 --> 03:33:51,400
piece even as people were still 
wearing it. 

3769
03:33:51,400 --> 03:33:55,900
If the 1910s were about gradual 
Liberation, the 1920s were about

3770
03:33:55,900 --> 03:33:58,500
fashion and doing the Charleston
while wearing a headband and 

3771
03:33:58,500 --> 03:34:01,800
shouting Freedom. 
At the top of its lungs, the 

3772
03:34:01,800 --> 03:34:04,900
decade didn't just change what 
people wore, it, completely 

3773
03:34:04,900 --> 03:34:07,700
revolutionized, the relationship
between clothing and identity, 

3774
03:34:08,500 --> 03:34:12,100
The flapper dress was the decade
signature achievement and it was

3775
03:34:12,100 --> 03:34:15,300
basically everything Victoria 
and clothing wasn't short 

3776
03:34:15,300 --> 03:34:19,000
straight and shockingly simple. 
It hung Loosely from the 

3777
03:34:19,000 --> 03:34:21,600
shoulders and ended daringly at 
the knee, or even higher. 

3778
03:34:22,500 --> 03:34:25,400
Victorian lady would have needed
smelling salts just looking at 

3779
03:34:25,400 --> 03:34:27,300
it which was precisely the 
point. 

3780
03:34:27,300 --> 03:34:30,600
What made the flapper dress, so 
revolutionary wasn't just how it

3781
03:34:30,600 --> 03:34:34,300
looked but what it allowed women
to do, you could dance in it 

3782
03:34:34,300 --> 03:34:37,500
really dance with energetic 
movements and spin. 

3783
03:34:37,500 --> 03:34:40,700
You could drive a car without 
your skirt, getting caught in 

3784
03:34:40,700 --> 03:34:42,900
the door, you could cross your 
legs while sitting. 

3785
03:34:43,600 --> 03:34:46,600
These might seem like small 
freedoms, but they represented a

3786
03:34:46,600 --> 03:34:49,000
complete transformation in how 
women could move through the 

3787
03:34:49,008 --> 03:34:51,700
world. 
The dropped waist line of 1920s,

3788
03:34:51,700 --> 03:34:54,200
dresses, created, a completely 
new silhouette that 

3789
03:34:54,200 --> 03:34:56,900
de-emphasized the female form in
ways that would have shocked 

3790
03:34:56,900 --> 03:34:59,800
previous generations, where 
Victorian fashion had been 

3791
03:34:59,808 --> 03:35:02,200
obsessed with creating an 
exaggerated hourglass. 

3792
03:35:02,200 --> 03:35:06,200
Figure 1920s fashion, 
celebrated, a more boyish 

3793
03:35:06,200 --> 03:35:09,000
androgynous. 
Look It was as if fashion 

3794
03:35:09,000 --> 03:35:11,300
decided that women's bodies 
didn't need to be architectural 

3795
03:35:11,300 --> 03:35:14,200
projects after all hair. 
Got even shorter with the bob 

3796
03:35:14,200 --> 03:35:18,100
cut, which caused genuine social
controversy, women were 

3797
03:35:18,100 --> 03:35:20,500
literally receiving death 
threats for cutting their hair 

3798
03:35:20,500 --> 03:35:24,600
short, and imagine that getting 
violent male because of your 

3799
03:35:24,600 --> 03:35:27,400
hair cut, but the Bob was more 
than just a hairstyle. 

3800
03:35:27,400 --> 03:35:29,700
It was a declaration of 
independence from the 

3801
03:35:29,700 --> 03:35:33,100
time-consuming beauty routines 
that had kept women tether to 

3802
03:35:33,100 --> 03:35:34,900
their vanity tables for hours 
each day. 

3803
03:35:34,900 --> 03:35:38,800
Men's fashion during the 1920s 
became more relaxed and varied 

3804
03:35:38,800 --> 03:35:41,700
though, it was still more formal
than what we considered a normal

3805
03:35:41,708 --> 03:35:44,300
today. 
The three-piece suit remained 

3806
03:35:44,300 --> 03:35:47,200
standard but new fabrics and 
cuts made it more comfortable 

3807
03:35:47,200 --> 03:35:50,800
and practical plus Force for 
golf sweater vests for casual 

3808
03:35:50,800 --> 03:35:53,800
wear, and the introduction of 
sportswear began to give men 

3809
03:35:53,800 --> 03:35:55,300
more options for different 
occasions. 

3810
03:35:55,300 --> 03:35:59,900
The 1920s, also saw the rise of 
ready-to-wear fashion becoming 

3811
03:35:59,900 --> 03:36:03,200
truly mainstream department 
stores expanded their clothing 

3812
03:36:03,200 --> 03:36:06,200
sections and for the first time 
middle-class people could buy 

3813
03:36:06,200 --> 03:36:08,800
fashionable clothing off the 
rack rather than having 

3814
03:36:08,800 --> 03:36:11,700
everything custom made. 
It was the democratization of 

3815
03:36:11,700 --> 03:36:14,100
fashion though. 
The truly wealthy still 

3816
03:36:14,100 --> 03:36:17,800
preferred, their bespoke tailors
cocoa Chanel emerged as one of 

3817
03:36:17,808 --> 03:36:21,200
the Decades most influential 
designers and her philosophy was

3818
03:36:21,200 --> 03:36:23,800
revolutionary. 
Fashion should be comfortable 

3819
03:36:23,800 --> 03:36:27,800
practical and elegant all at the
same time, she introduced the 

3820
03:36:27,800 --> 03:36:30,900
concept of casual Chic, the idea
that you could look 

3821
03:36:30,900 --> 03:36:34,400
sophisticated while wearing 
simple well-cut clothing, a 

3822
03:36:34,400 --> 03:36:38,300
little black dress introduced in
1926 was like Fashion's version 

3823
03:36:38,300 --> 03:36:41,300
of the model t4de simple 
elegant. 

3824
03:36:41,300 --> 03:36:43,800
And versatile enough to be 
appropriate for almost any 

3825
03:36:43,800 --> 03:36:47,200
occasion. 
Chanel also, liberated women 

3826
03:36:47,200 --> 03:36:49,300
from the tyranny of decorative 
accessories. 

3827
03:36:49,300 --> 03:36:51,300
Where Victorian fashion had 
required. 

3828
03:36:51,300 --> 03:36:55,600
Elaborate jewelry hair ornaments
and trim Chanel's designs were 

3829
03:36:55,600 --> 03:36:58,800
based on the radical idea that 
sometimes less really was more. 

3830
03:36:58,800 --> 03:37:02,200
She made Simplicity 
sophisticated, which was perhaps

3831
03:37:02,200 --> 03:37:04,300
the decades greatest fashion 
Innovation. 

3832
03:37:04,300 --> 03:37:06,700
The influence of jazz music on 
fashion. 

3833
03:37:06,700 --> 03:37:09,800
Can't be overstated. 
The energetic improvisational 

3834
03:37:09,800 --> 03:37:12,500
nature of jazz translated 
directly into clothing that 

3835
03:37:12,500 --> 03:37:15,400
moved with the body. 
Sparkled under dance hall 

3836
03:37:15,400 --> 03:37:18,300
lights, and celebrated 
individual expression, over 

3837
03:37:18,300 --> 03:37:21,000
Conformity. 
Fashion became performative in a

3838
03:37:21,008 --> 03:37:23,900
completely new way. 
Clothes were designed to look 

3839
03:37:23,900 --> 03:37:26,600
good in motion, not just 
informal portraits. 

3840
03:37:27,400 --> 03:37:30,200
Evening wear during the 1920s 
was particularly spectacular 

3841
03:37:30,200 --> 03:37:34,300
beaded dresses, that caught and 
reflected light Fringe that 

3842
03:37:34,308 --> 03:37:37,200
moved with every step and 
metallic Fabrics. 

3843
03:37:37,200 --> 03:37:39,400
That turned the wearer into a 
walking disco ball. 

3844
03:37:39,400 --> 03:37:42,100
It was fashioned designed for 
artificial lighting and 

3845
03:37:42,100 --> 03:37:44,900
energetic dance dancing. 
The first truly modern party 

3846
03:37:44,900 --> 03:37:47,500
clothes. 
The decade also introduced the 

3847
03:37:47,508 --> 03:37:49,800
concept of fashion Seasons, as 
we know them today. 

3848
03:37:49,800 --> 03:37:52,900
Magazine's, began showing spring
Collections and fall 

3849
03:37:52,900 --> 03:37:55,200
Collections. 
And the idea that your wardrobe 

3850
03:37:55,200 --> 03:37:57,700
should change with the calendar 
became entrenched. 

3851
03:37:57,700 --> 03:38:00,800
It was the beginning of planned 
obsolescence in fashion. 

3852
03:38:00,800 --> 03:38:04,100
The idea that last season's 
clothes Were Somehow inadequate 

3853
03:38:04,100 --> 03:38:08,800
for this season's activities. 
By the end of the 1920s, fashion

3854
03:38:08,800 --> 03:38:12,200
had been completely transformed.
The elaborate restrictive 

3855
03:38:12,200 --> 03:38:14,900
clothing of the Victorian era, 
looked as foreign as medieval 

3856
03:38:14,900 --> 03:38:17,700
armor Women had gained the 
freedom to move. 

3857
03:38:17,700 --> 03:38:21,100
Dance work and play in ways that
their grandmothers never could 

3858
03:38:21,100 --> 03:38:23,500
have imagined. 
But the party couldn't last 

3859
03:38:23,500 --> 03:38:26,100
forever. 
The stock market crash of 1929 

3860
03:38:26,100 --> 03:38:30,200
was about to change everything. 
Including what people wore and 

3861
03:38:30,200 --> 03:38:33,800
how they thought about fashion 
The Carefree extravagance of the

3862
03:38:33,800 --> 03:38:37,800
1920s was about to run headlong 
into the Practical realities of 

3863
03:38:37,800 --> 03:38:40,400
economic depression. 
The Great Depression hit 

3864
03:38:40,400 --> 03:38:43,100
fashion, like a bucket of cold 
water thrown on a very 

3865
03:38:43,100 --> 03:38:46,300
fashionable party. 
Suddenly the Carefree 

3866
03:38:46,300 --> 03:38:50,000
extravagant of the 1920s seemed 
not just outdated, but almost 

3867
03:38:50,000 --> 03:38:53,100
offensive, the new motto became 
make it last. 

3868
03:38:53,100 --> 03:38:55,600
Make it count and make it work 
for everything. 

3869
03:38:55,600 --> 03:38:59,400
The 1930s are in what we might 
call Elegant practicality. 

3870
03:39:00,200 --> 03:39:01,700
Designers had to create 
clothing. 

3871
03:39:01,700 --> 03:39:04,100
That was beautiful enough to 
maintain morale during difficult

3872
03:39:04,100 --> 03:39:07,400
times but practical enough to be
worn for years without 

3873
03:39:07,400 --> 03:39:10,600
replacement, it was like solving
of a very sophisticated math 

3874
03:39:10,600 --> 03:39:13,100
problem, where the variables 
were styled durability and 

3875
03:39:13,100 --> 03:39:17,200
budget, Henley's dropped back 
down to mid calf, partly for 

3876
03:39:17,200 --> 03:39:19,600
modesty, but mostly because 
longer skirts, meant more 

3877
03:39:19,600 --> 03:39:22,400
fabric, which meant the Garment 
would last longer and provide 

3878
03:39:22,400 --> 03:39:25,900
better value the silhouette 
became more than feminine again,

3879
03:39:25,900 --> 03:39:28,700
but in a sleeker more 
streamlined way than the 

3880
03:39:28,700 --> 03:39:31,600
Victorian era. 
It was as a fashion had learned 

3881
03:39:31,600 --> 03:39:33,700
to be curvaceous without being 
cumbersome. 

3882
03:39:33,700 --> 03:39:36,300
The bias cut became the 
signature technique of the 

3883
03:39:36,300 --> 03:39:38,700
decade. 
Thanks, largely to designer 

3884
03:39:38,700 --> 03:39:42,600
Madeleine vionnet cutting fabric
on the bias and a 45 degree, 

3885
03:39:42,600 --> 03:39:46,100
angle to the grain, created 
garments that draped beautifully

3886
03:39:46,100 --> 03:39:48,800
and moved with the body. 
Using the Fabric's natural 

3887
03:39:48,800 --> 03:39:50,800
stretch rather than fighting 
against it. 

3888
03:39:50,800 --> 03:39:54,000
It was an ingenious solution. 
That created elegant figure, 

3889
03:39:54,000 --> 03:39:56,200
flattering clothes without 
requiring, elaborate 

3890
03:39:56,200 --> 03:39:59,500
construction or expensive, 
materials Hollywood became a 

3891
03:39:59,500 --> 03:40:01,200
major influence on fashion 
during this period. 

3892
03:40:01,200 --> 03:40:04,600
Partly because movies provided 
an escape from economic 

3893
03:40:04,600 --> 03:40:08,100
hardship, but also because film 
stars had the resources to wear 

3894
03:40:08,100 --> 03:40:10,400
beautiful clothes when most 
people couldn't afford them 

3895
03:40:10,400 --> 03:40:13,900
magazines, featured pages of 
Hollywood style on a depression 

3896
03:40:13,900 --> 03:40:16,900
budget showing readers how to 
achieve movie star of Glamour 

3897
03:40:16,900 --> 03:40:20,500
with engineering and Thrift. 
The concept of separates became 

3898
03:40:20,500 --> 03:40:24,600
popular during the 1930s blouses
skirts, and jackets that could 

3899
03:40:24,600 --> 03:40:27,000
be mixed and matched to create 
different outfits from fewer 

3900
03:40:27,000 --> 03:40:28,900
pieces. 
It was the beginning of the 

3901
03:40:28,900 --> 03:40:32,600
modern concept of A wardrobe as 
a coordinated system, rather 

3902
03:40:32,600 --> 03:40:35,900
than a collection of individual 
dresses, you could buy one skirt

3903
03:40:35,900 --> 03:40:39,100
and three blouses and suddenly 
have multiple outfits, which was

3904
03:40:39,100 --> 03:40:40,900
revolutionary for people on 
tight budgets. 

3905
03:40:41,700 --> 03:40:45,200
Daywear became more casual and 
practical Shirtwaist dresses, 

3906
03:40:45,200 --> 03:40:48,600
essentially button up shirts, 
extended into dress length. 

3907
03:40:49,200 --> 03:40:52,400
Became a staple because they 
were comfortable easy to launder

3908
03:40:52,400 --> 03:40:55,800
and appropriate for both work 
and Casual social occasions. 

3909
03:40:55,800 --> 03:40:58,800
It was clothing designed for 
real life, rather than for 

3910
03:40:58,800 --> 03:41:02,300
making fashion statements. 
Then came World War 2 and 

3911
03:41:02,300 --> 03:41:04,300
fashioned face challenges that 
made the depression. 

3912
03:41:04,300 --> 03:41:06,000
Look like a minor budget 
adjustment. 

3913
03:41:06,000 --> 03:41:10,200
Rationing affected everything 
fabric leather metal for buttons

3914
03:41:10,200 --> 03:41:14,000
and zippers even elastic. 
The fashion industry had to 

3915
03:41:14,000 --> 03:41:16,800
completely reimagine, what 
clothing could be when you 

3916
03:41:16,800 --> 03:41:19,800
couldn't get the materials, you 
needed the utility clothing 

3917
03:41:19,800 --> 03:41:21,800
program in Britain and similar 
initiatives. 

3918
03:41:21,800 --> 03:41:25,100
In other countries, created 
standardized designs that used 

3919
03:41:25,100 --> 03:41:27,900
minimal materials while still 
being attractive and functional.

3920
03:41:27,900 --> 03:41:31,200
It was fashioned by committee 
designed by government 

3921
03:41:31,200 --> 03:41:35,400
regulations, but somehow, it 
worked The clothes were simple, 

3922
03:41:35,400 --> 03:41:39,000
well, cut and practical, the 
fashion equivalent of wartime 

3923
03:41:39,000 --> 03:41:41,500
efficiency. 
Hemlin rose again during the 

3924
03:41:41,500 --> 03:41:44,600
war, but this time it wasn't 
about Freedom or Rebellion. 

3925
03:41:44,600 --> 03:41:46,600
It was about fabric 
conservation. 

3926
03:41:46,600 --> 03:41:50,300
Every inch of fabric saved was 
fabric, that could be used for 

3927
03:41:50,300 --> 03:41:53,400
military purposes. 
Women skirts, became shorter and

3928
03:41:53,400 --> 03:41:56,600
narrower not as a fashion 
statement but as a patriotic 

3929
03:41:56,600 --> 03:42:00,300
Duty the make do and mend 
philosophy became a virtue 

3930
03:42:00,300 --> 03:42:03,000
rather than a necessity fashion 
magazines. 

3931
03:42:03,000 --> 03:42:06,200
Published articles on how to 
refresh clothes, how to make 

3932
03:42:06,200 --> 03:42:09,100
children's clothes from adult 
garments that were too warned to

3933
03:42:09,100 --> 03:42:11,700
repair and how to create 
accessories from household 

3934
03:42:11,700 --> 03:42:15,300
items, creativity became more 
valuable than money and fashion,

3935
03:42:15,300 --> 03:42:16,800
for perps the first time in 
history. 

3936
03:42:17,800 --> 03:42:20,900
Women entering the workforce in 
unprecedented numbers needed 

3937
03:42:20,900 --> 03:42:22,800
clothes. 
That could handle factory work 

3938
03:42:22,800 --> 03:42:25,500
driving trucks and operating 
Machinery. 

3939
03:42:25,500 --> 03:42:28,500
This led to the widespread 
adoption of trousers for women, 

3940
03:42:28,500 --> 03:42:32,200
not as a fashion choice, but as 
a practical necessity Rosie, the

3941
03:42:32,208 --> 03:42:35,900
riveters uniform of practical 
pants and sensible shirts became

3942
03:42:35,900 --> 03:42:39,200
an icon, not just of women's 
capabilities, but a Fashions 

3943
03:42:39,200 --> 03:42:41,400
ability to adapt to changing 
social needs. 

3944
03:42:42,200 --> 03:42:44,900
Mens fashion was similarly 
affected by wartime needs. 

3945
03:42:44,900 --> 03:42:48,000
Civilian. 
Suits were simplified no trials 

3946
03:42:48,000 --> 03:42:50,900
are cuffs fewer Pockets narrower
lapels to conserve fabric. 

3947
03:42:51,900 --> 03:42:55,900
The victory suit became a symbol
of patriotic sacrifice proving 

3948
03:42:55,900 --> 03:42:58,400
that even fashion could 
contribute to the war effort. 

3949
03:42:58,400 --> 03:43:01,300
But perhaps the most important 
development of this period was 

3950
03:43:01,300 --> 03:43:03,400
the psychological role that 
fashion played. 

3951
03:43:04,100 --> 03:43:06,700
During the darkest times of 
economic depression and global 

3952
03:43:06,700 --> 03:43:08,800
war. 
People still cared about looking

3953
03:43:08,800 --> 03:43:12,900
good fashion, became a form of 
resistance against despair, a 

3954
03:43:12,900 --> 03:43:15,300
way of maintaining dignity and 
hope when everything else was 

3955
03:43:15,300 --> 03:43:18,800
falling apart. 
The period also saw the rise of 

3956
03:43:18,800 --> 03:43:21,400
American fashion as a force 
independent of European 

3957
03:43:21,400 --> 03:43:23,900
influence. 
Harris Under German occupation 

3958
03:43:23,900 --> 03:43:27,100
and American designers had to 
develop their own aesthetic 

3959
03:43:27,100 --> 03:43:28,900
rather than copying French 
Couture. 

3960
03:43:28,900 --> 03:43:32,000
This led to a distinctly 
American style that was more 

3961
03:43:32,000 --> 03:43:35,500
practical, more casual, and more
democratic than traditional, 

3962
03:43:35,500 --> 03:43:39,400
European fashion by the 
mid-1940s fashion had been 

3963
03:43:39,400 --> 03:43:42,100
tested by economic catastrophe 
and global war. 

3964
03:43:42,100 --> 03:43:46,600
And it survived by becoming more
practical, more creative and 

3965
03:43:46,600 --> 03:43:48,400
more attuned to real people's 
needs. 

3966
03:43:48,400 --> 03:43:52,000
The stage, was set for the 
postwar fashion explosion that 

3967
03:43:52,000 --> 03:43:55,400
would celebrate both the return 
of prosperity and the lessons 

3968
03:43:55,400 --> 03:43:58,300
learned during the lean years in
1947. 

3969
03:43:58,300 --> 03:44:01,900
After years of fabric, rationing
utility clothing and making do 

3970
03:44:01,900 --> 03:44:05,900
with less Christian Dior 
unveiled, his new look and 

3971
03:44:05,900 --> 03:44:09,000
fashion essentially fainted from
sheer relief here. 

3972
03:44:09,000 --> 03:44:12,000
Finally was clothing, that 
celebrated abundance femininity 

3973
03:44:12,000 --> 03:44:13,700
and the return of Peace time 
Prosperity. 

3974
03:44:13,700 --> 03:44:16,600
The new look was everything 
wartime fashion wasn't. 

3975
03:44:17,300 --> 03:44:21,100
Full skirts that used yards and 
yards of fabric tiny cinched 

3976
03:44:21,100 --> 03:44:24,100
waists that required 
foundational undergarments and a

3977
03:44:24,100 --> 03:44:25,900
silhouette. 
That was unabashedly feminine 

3978
03:44:25,900 --> 03:44:28,100
and decorative. 
It was like fashion had been 

3979
03:44:28,100 --> 03:44:31,700
holding its breath for six years
and finally exhaled in a whoosh 

3980
03:44:31,700 --> 03:44:34,600
of silk and satin. 
The reaction was immediate and 

3981
03:44:34,600 --> 03:44:37,400
intense women who had spent 
years in Practical. 

3982
03:44:37,400 --> 03:44:41,000
Simplified clothing, fell in 
love with the Romantic feminine 

3983
03:44:41,000 --> 03:44:45,700
of duels designs but there was 
also controversy critics argued 

3984
03:44:45,700 --> 03:44:48,300
that the new look was a step 
backward for women's Liberation.

3985
03:44:48,300 --> 03:44:51,300
Forcing them back into 
restrictive in Practical 

3986
03:44:51,300 --> 03:44:53,400
clothing. 
Just when they had proven, they 

3987
03:44:53,400 --> 03:44:56,200
could do anything. 
Men could do, but the new looks 

3988
03:44:56,200 --> 03:44:58,500
exceeded, because it wasn't 
really about going backward. 

3989
03:44:58,500 --> 03:45:01,900
It was about having choices 
again, after years of being told

3990
03:45:01,900 --> 03:45:04,000
what they couldn't wear due to 
rationing and wartime 

3991
03:45:04,000 --> 03:45:07,500
restrictions, women could choose
to wear full skirts and fitted. 

3992
03:45:07,500 --> 03:45:12,000
Bodices, if they wanted to the 
keyword was choose, the 1950s 

3993
03:45:12,000 --> 03:45:14,900
became the decade of the 
Suburban dream and fashion, 

3994
03:45:14,900 --> 03:45:17,700
reflected this new lifestyle 
day, where was practical? 

3995
03:45:17,700 --> 03:45:21,400
But pretty Shirtwaist dresses, 
Cardigans and circle skirts that

3996
03:45:21,400 --> 03:45:23,100
were perfect for driving to the 
grocery store. 

3997
03:45:23,100 --> 03:45:26,200
Hosting coffee mornings and 
chasing children around 

3998
03:45:26,200 --> 03:45:29,400
backyards. 
It was domestic fashion but 

3999
03:45:29,400 --> 03:45:33,000
domestic with style evening 
wear, during the 1950s was Pure 

4000
03:45:33,000 --> 03:45:37,000
Fantasy ball gowns with massive 
skirts that required crinolines 

4001
03:45:37,000 --> 03:45:40,100
or even small Hoops. 
Fitted bodices that showed off 

4002
03:45:40,100 --> 03:45:43,500
tiny waists and enough fabric to
upholster, a sofa. 

4003
03:45:43,500 --> 03:45:46,100
It was clothing designed for 
society, that wanted to 

4004
03:45:46,100 --> 03:45:47,800
celebrate prosperity and 
femininity. 

4005
03:45:47,800 --> 03:45:51,300
After years of austerity, the 
concept of teenage fashion 

4006
03:45:51,300 --> 03:45:54,000
emerged during this decade 
driven by post-war prosperity 

4007
03:45:54,000 --> 03:45:56,800
and the new phenomenon of 
teenagers have their own 

4008
03:45:56,800 --> 03:45:59,400
spending money. 
For the first time in fashion 

4009
03:45:59,400 --> 03:46:01,200
history. 
Young people had their own 

4010
03:46:01,200 --> 03:46:04,200
distinct style rather than just 
wearing simplified versions of 

4011
03:46:04,200 --> 03:46:07,900
adult clothing. 
Poodle skirts, saddle shoes and 

4012
03:46:07,900 --> 03:46:10,100
let us sweaters. 
Became the uniform of American 

4013
03:46:10,100 --> 03:46:12,900
Youth men's fashion. 
During the 1950s was 

4014
03:46:12,900 --> 03:46:15,800
characterized by what we might 
call confident conformity. 

4015
03:46:16,700 --> 03:46:19,300
The gray flannel suit became the
uniform of the Suburban 

4016
03:46:19,300 --> 03:46:22,300
businessman, but it was worn 
with a confidence that reflected

4017
03:46:22,300 --> 03:46:24,900
postwar optimism. 
Casual wear became more 

4018
03:46:24,900 --> 03:46:27,900
important to suburbs, created 
more opportunities for relaxed 

4019
03:46:27,900 --> 03:46:30,700
socializing. 
Barbecues lawn parties and 

4020
03:46:30,700 --> 03:46:32,600
family gatherings that required 
clothing. 

4021
03:46:32,600 --> 03:46:35,200
That was nice. 
But not for more the influence 

4022
03:46:35,200 --> 03:46:38,200
of Hollywood continued to grow 
during this period but now it 

4023
03:46:38,200 --> 03:46:40,400
was supplemented by the new 
medium of television. 

4024
03:46:41,300 --> 03:46:43,400
Fashion became more immediately 
accessible. 

4025
03:46:43,400 --> 03:46:46,300
As people could see the latest 
Styles every week in their 

4026
03:46:46,300 --> 03:46:49,300
living rooms TV stars influenced
fashion. 

4027
03:46:49,300 --> 03:46:51,900
In ways that movie stars, never 
could, because they appeared 

4028
03:46:51,900 --> 03:46:55,600
more regularly and seemed more 
accessible ready to wear fashion

4029
03:46:55,600 --> 03:46:58,700
came into its own during the 
1950s department, stores 

4030
03:46:58,700 --> 03:47:01,400
expanded, their fashion 
offerings, and the quality of 

4031
03:47:01,400 --> 03:47:02,400
mass-produced. 
Clothing. 

4032
03:47:02,400 --> 03:47:04,800
Improved dramatically for the 
first time. 

4033
03:47:04,800 --> 03:47:07,500
You could buy clothes off the 
rack that were almost as well 

4034
03:47:07,500 --> 03:47:10,700
made as custom garments and 
significantly less expensive. 

4035
03:47:11,700 --> 03:47:13,900
The decade also saw the 
beginning of Fashion's 

4036
03:47:13,900 --> 03:47:16,800
relationship with technology, 
new synthetic fabrics, like 

4037
03:47:16,800 --> 03:47:20,100
nylon polyester and acrylic 
offered properties that natural 

4038
03:47:20,100 --> 03:47:23,600
fibers could not match, wrinkle 
resistance, easy care, and 

4039
03:47:23,600 --> 03:47:25,800
durability. 
The Washington wear garment 

4040
03:47:25,800 --> 03:47:29,400
became the Holy Grail of 1950s, 
fashion, promising, busy 

4041
03:47:29,400 --> 03:47:32,000
housewives, that they could look
good without spending hours on 

4042
03:47:32,000 --> 03:47:34,800
clothing maintenance. 
Youth culture began to challenge

4043
03:47:34,800 --> 03:47:36,900
the adult fashion establishment 
during this period. 

4044
03:47:36,900 --> 03:47:40,500
The grease a style for young, 
men, leather jacket, white 

4045
03:47:40,500 --> 03:47:42,700
t-shirts. 
And jeans was specifically 

4046
03:47:42,700 --> 03:47:45,600
designed to shock adults and 
declare independence from their 

4047
03:47:45,600 --> 03:47:47,800
values. 
It was the beginning of fashion 

4048
03:47:47,800 --> 03:47:50,700
as generational Rebellion. 
A theme that would become 

4049
03:47:50,700 --> 03:47:54,800
Central to fashion for decades 
to come By the end of the 1950s 

4050
03:47:54,800 --> 03:47:58,100
fashion had established, many of
the patterns that were Define 

4051
03:47:58,100 --> 03:48:01,500
modern clothing, the importance 
of Youth markets, the role of 

4052
03:48:01,500 --> 03:48:04,900
celebrity influence, the 
democratization of style through

4053
03:48:04,900 --> 03:48:08,600
ready, to wear and the constant 
tension between practicality and

4054
03:48:08,600 --> 03:48:11,400
fantasy. 
All of these became permanent 

4055
03:48:11,400 --> 03:48:13,900
features of the fashion 
landscape but beneath the 

4056
03:48:13,908 --> 03:48:18,300
surface of 1950s Conformity and 
prosperity changes were Brewing.

4057
03:48:18,300 --> 03:48:20,600
The Civil Rights Movement was 
gaining momentum. 

4058
03:48:20,600 --> 03:48:24,300
Women were beginning to question
their prescribed roles in young 

4059
03:48:24,300 --> 03:48:26,700
people were starting to 
challenge authority in ways that

4060
03:48:26,700 --> 03:48:29,700
their clothing choices 
reflected, the stage was set for

4061
03:48:29,700 --> 03:48:34,200
the fashion revolution of the 
1960s 1960s didn't just change 

4062
03:48:34,200 --> 03:48:36,700
fashion, it grabbed fashioned by
the shoulders. 

4063
03:48:36,700 --> 03:48:40,200
Spun it around three times and 
sent it dancing off in 

4064
03:48:40,200 --> 03:48:42,900
Direction's. 
Nobody had ever imagined it was 

4065
03:48:42,908 --> 03:48:45,700
the decade when fashion stopped 
being something that happened to

4066
03:48:45,700 --> 03:48:48,800
you and became something. 
You used to express exactly who 

4067
03:48:48,800 --> 03:48:51,200
you were or at least who you 
wanted to be. 

4068
03:48:52,700 --> 03:48:54,700
The decade started innocently 
enough. 

4069
03:48:54,700 --> 03:48:57,800
Jackie Kennedy became first lady
in 1961. 

4070
03:48:57,800 --> 03:49:01,200
And her elegant sophisticated 
style set, the tone for early 

4071
03:49:01,200 --> 03:49:05,600
1960s fashion. 
The pillbox hat, A-line, dresses

4072
03:49:05,600 --> 03:49:08,200
and understated. 
Elegance of the Jackie look 

4073
03:49:08,200 --> 03:49:11,800
represented, a refined evolution
of 1950 style. 

4074
03:49:11,800 --> 03:49:14,800
It was fashioned for grownups 
who wanted to look modern, but 

4075
03:49:14,800 --> 03:49:17,100
not revolutionary, but then came
the youth. 

4076
03:49:17,100 --> 03:49:19,400
Explosion. 
The Baby Boomers were reaching 

4077
03:49:19,400 --> 03:49:22,700
their teens and twenties, and 
they had money attitudes and 

4078
03:49:22,700 --> 03:49:25,400
absolutely no interest in 
dressing, like, their parents 

4079
03:49:25,400 --> 03:49:28,700
Fashions, suddenly had to serve 
two completely different 

4080
03:49:28,700 --> 03:49:32,400
markets, the adults, who wanted 
sophisticated elegance and the 

4081
03:49:32,400 --> 03:49:35,200
young people who wanted 
something entirely new Mary 

4082
03:49:35,200 --> 03:49:39,200
Quantum London created the mini 
skirt around 1965 and it was 

4083
03:49:39,200 --> 03:49:42,300
like dropping a fashion bomb 
hemline that had been creeping 

4084
03:49:42,300 --> 03:49:43,500
up. 
Gradually throughout the early 

4085
03:49:43,500 --> 03:49:47,300
1960s, suddenly jumped to 
mid-thigh creating a silhouette 

4086
03:49:47,300 --> 03:49:50,700
that was shocking liberating and
completely different from 

4087
03:49:50,700 --> 03:49:52,200
anything women had warned 
before. 

4088
03:49:52,200 --> 03:49:55,700
It wasn't just shorted, it was a
completely different philosophy 

4089
03:49:55,700 --> 03:49:57,200
of what women's clothing could 
be. 

4090
03:49:58,200 --> 03:50:00,900
The mini skirt represented more 
than just a fashion Choice. 

4091
03:50:00,900 --> 03:50:03,100
It was a declaration of 
independence. 

4092
03:50:03,100 --> 03:50:06,300
Young women were rejecting the 
idea that their clothing should 

4093
03:50:06,300 --> 03:50:08,800
be modest practical and approved
by their Elders. 

4094
03:50:08,800 --> 03:50:12,600
They wanted fashion, that was 
fun, sexy and expressive of 

4095
03:50:12,600 --> 03:50:15,900
their own values rather than 
society's expectations. 

4096
03:50:15,900 --> 03:50:18,900
London, became the fashion 
capital of the world for young 

4097
03:50:18,900 --> 03:50:21,300
people. 
Overtaking Paris for the first 

4098
03:50:21,300 --> 03:50:24,400
time in centuries. 
Carnaby Street in the King's 

4099
03:50:24,400 --> 03:50:27,100
Road became pilgrimage, 
destinations for anyone who 

4100
03:50:27,100 --> 03:50:30,000
wanted to be fashionable. 
British designers like Mary 

4101
03:50:30,000 --> 03:50:34,500
Quant Twiggy, who was both model
and designer, and later Zandra 

4102
03:50:34,500 --> 03:50:36,900
Rhodes created a distinctly 
British aesthetic. 

4103
03:50:36,900 --> 03:50:39,700
That was playful irreverent and 
completely modern. 

4104
03:50:39,700 --> 03:50:42,800
The shift dress, became the 
decades signature garment, 

4105
03:50:42,800 --> 03:50:46,700
simple straight, and perfect for
showing off legs in the new 

4106
03:50:46,700 --> 03:50:49,100
shorter lengths. 
It was the opposite of the 

4107
03:50:49,100 --> 03:50:51,600
fitted. 
Structured dresses of the 1950s 

4108
03:50:51,600 --> 03:50:55,000
where 1950s fashion had 
emphasized, the waist and hips 

4109
03:50:55,000 --> 03:50:58,200
1960s, fashion ignored 
traditional body shaping 

4110
03:50:58,200 --> 03:51:01,500
altogether in favor of a more 
geometric architectural approach

4111
03:51:01,500 --> 03:51:04,300
mod fashion. 
Brought us geometric patterns, 

4112
03:51:04,300 --> 03:51:07,800
bold colors, and a futuristic 
aesthetic that seemed to come 

4113
03:51:07,800 --> 03:51:11,000
from another planet apart 
patterns that created optical 

4114
03:51:11,000 --> 03:51:14,600
illusions when the wearer moved 
Space-age, silver and white 

4115
03:51:14,600 --> 03:51:17,700
Colour schemes and designs that 
look like they belonged in a 

4116
03:51:17,700 --> 03:51:21,100
science fiction movie. 
Fashion became experimental in 

4117
03:51:21,100 --> 03:51:23,200
ways. 
It had never been before the 

4118
03:51:23,200 --> 03:51:26,100
influence of youth culture 
created entirely new categories 

4119
03:51:26,100 --> 03:51:29,300
of clothing. 
The Poor Boys sweater go-go 

4120
03:51:29,300 --> 03:51:32,700
boots and peasant dresses were 
all designed specifically for 

4121
03:51:32,700 --> 03:51:36,300
young people rather than being 
adaptations of adult Styles. 

4122
03:51:36,300 --> 03:51:39,300
It was the first time in fashion
history that adults started. 

4123
03:51:39,300 --> 03:51:41,800
Copying young People's Clothing 
rather than the other way 

4124
03:51:41,800 --> 03:51:44,700
around. 
Men's fashion underwent its own 

4125
03:51:44,700 --> 03:51:48,400
Revolution, during the 1960s, 
the conservative business suit 

4126
03:51:48,400 --> 03:51:51,700
remained standard for work, but 
casual wear became much more 

4127
03:51:51,700 --> 03:51:54,500
adventurous. 
The peacock Revolution brought 

4128
03:51:54,500 --> 03:51:58,700
bright colors, bold patterns and
more fitted Silhouettes to Men's

4129
03:51:58,700 --> 03:52:02,300
Clothing, hair got longer pants,
got Tighter and for the first 

4130
03:52:02,300 --> 03:52:05,900
time since the 18th Century 
men's fashion became unabashedly

4131
03:52:05,900 --> 03:52:08,700
decorative. 
The hippie movement that emerged

4132
03:52:08,700 --> 03:52:11,800
in the mid to late 1960s, 
brought yet another fashion 

4133
03:52:11,800 --> 03:52:15,300
Revolution, where mod fashion 
had been about the future hippie

4134
03:52:15,300 --> 03:52:17,700
fashion, looked to the past and 
to other cultures for 

4135
03:52:17,700 --> 03:52:21,800
inspiration, Indian Prince 
peasant, dresses, Fringe, and 

4136
03:52:21,800 --> 03:52:25,000
broidery, and natural Fabrics. 
Created a Bohemian aesthetic, 

4137
03:52:25,000 --> 03:52:28,200
that rejected both mainstream 
fashion and the space age 

4138
03:52:28,200 --> 03:52:31,500
futurism of mods style. 
Hippie fashion also introduced 

4139
03:52:31,500 --> 03:52:34,500
the concept of vintage and 
second-hand clothing, as fashion

4140
03:52:34,500 --> 03:52:37,800
choices rather than economic 
Necessities shopping at thrift 

4141
03:52:37,800 --> 03:52:39,600
stores and wearing. 
Your grandmother's clothes 

4142
03:52:39,600 --> 03:52:42,700
became ways of rejecting 
consumer culture, while creating

4143
03:52:42,700 --> 03:52:45,700
individual style. 
It was fashion as philosophy, 

4144
03:52:45,700 --> 03:52:48,900
not just appearance. 
The decade also saw the rise of 

4145
03:52:48,900 --> 03:52:52,200
fashion as political statement, 
the miniskirt was feminist for 

4146
03:52:52,200 --> 03:52:54,300
some women and anti-feminist for
others. 

4147
03:52:54,300 --> 03:52:57,700
Long hair on men was a rejection
of military and corporate 

4148
03:52:57,700 --> 03:53:00,200
values. 
Does she is an afros became 

4149
03:53:00,200 --> 03:53:02,600
expressions of black pride and 
cultural identity? 

4150
03:53:03,300 --> 03:53:05,900
What you wore became a way of 
announcing your politics to the 

4151
03:53:05,900 --> 03:53:09,800
world unisex fashion, emerged as
gender roles began to be 

4152
03:53:09,800 --> 03:53:12,800
questioned the same jeans 
t-shirts and work shirts. 

4153
03:53:12,800 --> 03:53:15,800
Could be worn by men or women 
creating a shared fashion 

4154
03:53:15,800 --> 03:53:17,800
vocabulary that had never 
existed before. 

4155
03:53:17,800 --> 03:53:20,800
It was the beginning of the 
breakdown of strict, gender 

4156
03:53:20,800 --> 03:53:25,000
distinctions and clothing that 
continues today by 1970 fashion 

4157
03:53:25,000 --> 03:53:28,600
had been completely transformed.
The idea that there was one 

4158
03:53:28,600 --> 03:53:31,300
correct way to dress for your 
age class and gender had been 

4159
03:53:31,308 --> 03:53:34,000
shattered. 
Personal expression had become 

4160
03:53:34,000 --> 03:53:36,300
more important than social 
Conformity. 

4161
03:53:36,300 --> 03:53:40,200
Fashion had become Democratic 
diverse, and individual in ways 

4162
03:53:40,200 --> 03:53:42,200
that would have been impossible.
Just 10 years early. 

4163
03:53:43,300 --> 03:53:47,600
If the 1960s had been about 
breaking the rules, the 1970s 

4164
03:53:47,600 --> 03:53:50,700
were about celebrating the fact 
that there were no rules left to

4165
03:53:50,700 --> 03:53:54,000
break fashion entered. 
Its most experimental diverse. 

4166
03:53:54,000 --> 03:53:56,900
And frankly, weird decade where 
you could dress like a 

4167
03:53:56,908 --> 03:54:01,200
Victorian, Gothic romantic a 
disco dancing queen or a back to

4168
03:54:01,200 --> 03:54:03,800
the land hippie. 
And all three looks were equally

4169
03:54:03,800 --> 03:54:06,500
fashionable. 
The decade started with hippie 

4170
03:54:06,500 --> 03:54:09,300
fashion, still going strong, but
it quickly evolved into 

4171
03:54:09,300 --> 03:54:12,600
something more sophisticated, 
and wearable, the peasant dress 

4172
03:54:12,600 --> 03:54:15,800
became the maxi dress flowing 
and romantic but made in 

4173
03:54:15,800 --> 03:54:18,000
beautiful fabrics and elegant 
cuts. 

4174
03:54:18,000 --> 03:54:20,600
It was hippie philosophy, 
dressed up for dinner parties, 

4175
03:54:20,600 --> 03:54:24,800
Bohemian style during the 1970s 
wasn't just about rejecting 

4176
03:54:24,800 --> 03:54:28,600
mainstream fashion, it was about
creating an entirely alternative

4177
03:54:28,600 --> 03:54:33,200
aesthetic, flowing, Fabrics, 
Earth Tones, natural fibers, and

4178
03:54:33,200 --> 03:54:36,000
handcrafted details. 
Created a look that celebrated 

4179
03:54:36,000 --> 03:54:38,300
individuality and artistic 
Sensibility. 

4180
03:54:39,300 --> 03:54:41,900
It was fashioned for people who 
saw themselves as creative, 

4181
03:54:41,900 --> 03:54:46,100
Souls rather than consumers. 
But the 1970s also gave us disco

4182
03:54:46,100 --> 03:54:49,700
fashion, which was Bohemians 
glittery party-loving cousin. 

4183
03:54:50,500 --> 03:54:55,200
Metallic sequins tight pants and
shirts with enormous collars. 

4184
03:54:55,200 --> 03:54:58,000
Created a look. 
That was specifically designed 

4185
03:54:58,000 --> 03:55:01,400
for dancing under flashing 
lights, disco fashion was about 

4186
03:55:01,400 --> 03:55:04,300
transformation. 
Putting on your sparkly clothes 

4187
03:55:04,300 --> 03:55:07,600
and becoming someone more 
glamorous, more exciting more 

4188
03:55:07,600 --> 03:55:10,400
alive. 
The decade Silhouettes were 

4189
03:55:10,400 --> 03:55:11,900
revolutionary in their 
diversity. 

4190
03:55:11,900 --> 03:55:14,000
You could wear a flowing maxi 
dress. 

4191
03:55:14,000 --> 03:55:16,800
That covered you from neck to 
ankle or shorts. 

4192
03:55:16,800 --> 03:55:19,100
So short, they were barely there
or anything in. 

4193
03:55:19,100 --> 03:55:22,000
Between fashion had finally 
accepted that different people 

4194
03:55:22,000 --> 03:55:24,900
wanted to show different amounts
of skin and that was perfectly 

4195
03:55:24,900 --> 03:55:27,300
fine. 
Platform shoes became the 

4196
03:55:27,300 --> 03:55:29,900
decades most distinctive 
accessory and they were 

4197
03:55:29,900 --> 03:55:31,700
essentially architecture for 
your feet. 

4198
03:55:31,700 --> 03:55:35,000
Some platforms were six inches, 
high or more turning walking 

4199
03:55:35,000 --> 03:55:38,000
into a performance art piece and
making everyone several inches 

4200
03:55:38,000 --> 03:55:40,900
taller than nature intended. 
They were in Practical 

4201
03:55:40,900 --> 03:55:44,500
occasionally, dangerous and 
absolutely fabulous. 

4202
03:55:44,500 --> 03:55:47,800
The influence of different 
decades became a major theme in 

4203
03:55:47,800 --> 03:55:51,500
the 1970s fashion. 
There was a Revival of 1930s and

4204
03:55:51,500 --> 03:55:54,600
1940s Styles. 
Flowing dresses, dramatic 

4205
03:55:54,600 --> 03:55:58,300
shoulders and vintage glamour, 
but there was also a fascination

4206
03:55:58,300 --> 03:56:01,500
with the Victorian era High 
necklines long sleeves and 

4207
03:56:01,500 --> 03:56:04,600
romantic details. 
Fashion became historical 

4208
03:56:04,600 --> 03:56:07,800
drawing inspiration from the 
past while creating something 

4209
03:56:07,800 --> 03:56:11,800
entirely new Punk fashion. 
Emerged in the mid 1970s as a 

4210
03:56:11,808 --> 03:56:14,800
deliberate rejection of both 
mainstream fashion and hippie 

4211
03:56:14,800 --> 03:56:18,700
idealism, ripped clothes, safety
pins, aggressive makeup and 

4212
03:56:18,700 --> 03:56:21,700
deliberately ugly combinations. 
Created a look that was designed

4213
03:56:21,700 --> 03:56:25,000
to shock and challenge. 
Punk fashion was about anger, 

4214
03:56:25,000 --> 03:56:28,400
rebellion and the rejection of 
beauty as a social value. 

4215
03:56:28,400 --> 03:56:32,700
But Punk was also incredibly 
creative and influential, The 

4216
03:56:32,700 --> 03:56:35,200
DIY aesthetic. 
Making your own clothes, 

4217
03:56:35,200 --> 03:56:38,700
customizing, store-bought items 
and creating unique looks from 

4218
03:56:38,700 --> 03:56:41,300
whatever materials you could 
find introduced. 

4219
03:56:41,300 --> 03:56:42,800
New ideas about what fashion 
could be. 

4220
03:56:42,800 --> 03:56:46,400
It didn't have to be expensive 
professionally made or even 

4221
03:56:46,400 --> 03:56:49,600
particularly attractive. 
It just had to express something

4222
03:56:49,600 --> 03:56:51,500
authentic about the person 
wearing it. 

4223
03:56:51,500 --> 03:56:55,300
Men's fashion, during the 1970s 
became more adventurous than it 

4224
03:56:55,300 --> 03:56:56,700
had. 
Been since the 18th century 

4225
03:56:56,700 --> 03:57:01,000
wide, lapels bright colors, bold
patterns and fitted Silhouettes,

4226
03:57:01,000 --> 03:57:03,400
created a look that was on a 
bashed decorative. 

4227
03:57:04,000 --> 03:57:06,600
The three-piece suit remained 
standard for business, but 

4228
03:57:06,600 --> 03:57:09,000
casual wear became an 
opportunity for self-expression 

4229
03:57:09,000 --> 03:57:13,200
rather than conformity. 
The decade also saw the rise of 

4230
03:57:13,200 --> 03:57:15,200
designer jeans as a fashion 
category. 

4231
03:57:15,200 --> 03:57:18,700
What had been basic, Workwear 
became a luxury item with 

4232
03:57:18,700 --> 03:57:20,900
different brands, offering 
different cuts washes, and 

4233
03:57:20,900 --> 03:57:24,100
styling details, it was the 
democratization of fashion 

4234
03:57:24,100 --> 03:57:27,200
through denim. 
Everyone could afford jeans but 

4235
03:57:27,200 --> 03:57:30,400
design a way to be fashionable. 
Within that Democratic framework

4236
03:57:30,400 --> 03:57:35,000
athletic wear began to influence
fashion during the 1970s driven 

4237
03:57:35,000 --> 03:57:38,800
by new interest in fitness and 
health jogging suits, tennis 

4238
03:57:38,800 --> 03:57:42,500
dresses, and exercise, clothes 
began appearing in non-athletic 

4239
03:57:42,500 --> 03:57:45,700
contexts, it was the beginning 
of the athleisure trend that 

4240
03:57:45,700 --> 03:57:48,200
would eventually take over 
casual fashion, completely. 

4241
03:57:49,100 --> 03:57:51,600
The concept of Lifestyle 
dressing became important during

4242
03:57:51,600 --> 03:57:54,800
this decade instead of having 
one fashion identity, people 

4243
03:57:54,800 --> 03:57:58,600
could dress like Surfers 
Executives artists or athletes 

4244
03:57:58,600 --> 03:58:00,200
depending on their mood or the 
occasion. 

4245
03:58:01,100 --> 03:58:04,100
Fashion became fluid and 
situational rather than fixed 

4246
03:58:04,100 --> 03:58:07,800
and hierarchical. 
By the end of the 1970s fashion 

4247
03:58:07,800 --> 03:58:11,700
had become incredibly diverse 
and individualistic, The idea 

4248
03:58:11,700 --> 03:58:14,900
that everyone should dress alike
had been completely abandoned in

4249
03:58:14,900 --> 03:58:18,000
favor of a philosophy that 
celebrated personal expression 

4250
03:58:18,000 --> 03:58:21,600
and cultural diversity. 
It set the stage for the 1980s, 

4251
03:58:21,600 --> 03:58:24,100
which would take this 
individualism and turn it into 

4252
03:58:24,100 --> 03:58:28,500
performance art. the 1980s 
looked at fashion and said, you 

4253
03:58:28,500 --> 03:58:31,700
know what, this needs more of 
everything, more color, more 

4254
03:58:31,700 --> 03:58:36,800
texture, more volume, more 
accessories, more attitude, It 

4255
03:58:36,800 --> 03:58:39,800
was the decade when subtlety 
went into hiding and didn't 

4256
03:58:39,800 --> 03:58:43,500
emerge until sometime in the 
mid-1990s power dressing. 

4257
03:58:43,500 --> 03:58:47,000
Became the decade signature 
concept driven by women entering

4258
03:58:47,000 --> 03:58:49,300
corporate environments in 
unprecedented numbers. 

4259
03:58:49,300 --> 03:58:52,700
The power suit with massive 
shoulder pads that could double 

4260
03:58:52,700 --> 03:58:55,000
as small. 
Aircraft Wings was designed to 

4261
03:58:55,000 --> 03:58:56,800
help women compete in 
male-dominated. 

4262
03:58:56,800 --> 03:58:59,800
Workplaces by literally making 
them look bigger and more 

4263
03:58:59,800 --> 03:59:02,300
imposing. 
It was fashion as armor designed

4264
03:59:02,300 --> 03:59:05,500
for corporate Warfare. 
The shoulder pads of the 1980s, 

4265
03:59:05,500 --> 03:59:08,500
deserve their own chapter in 
fashion history, starting as 

4266
03:59:08,500 --> 03:59:11,000
modest editions to create a more
structured silhouette. 

4267
03:59:11,000 --> 03:59:14,200
They grew throughout the decade 
until they reached proportions 

4268
03:59:14,200 --> 03:59:17,600
that challenge doorway 
architecture, by the late 1980s 

4269
03:59:17,600 --> 03:59:20,500
shoulder pads had become so 
enormous that they looked like 

4270
03:59:20,500 --> 03:59:23,200
fashioned interpretation of 
American football gear. 

4271
03:59:23,900 --> 03:59:26,700
The power dressing wasn't just 
about looking tough, it was 

4272
03:59:26,708 --> 03:59:30,700
about looking expensive, the 
1980s celebrated wealth in ways 

4273
03:59:30,700 --> 03:59:33,000
that previous decades had 
considered vulgar. 

4274
03:59:33,900 --> 03:59:37,400
Designer labels became status 
symbols warned prominently on 

4275
03:59:37,400 --> 03:59:40,300
the outside of clothing rather 
than hidden discreetly inside. 

4276
03:59:40,300 --> 03:59:43,600
It was the decade when fashion 
became about broadcasting your 

4277
03:59:43,600 --> 03:59:45,800
success to anyone within visual 
range. 

4278
03:59:46,500 --> 03:59:49,600
The influence of Television 
particularly shows like Dynasty 

4279
03:59:49,600 --> 03:59:52,000
and Dallas created a fashion 
aesthetic. 

4280
03:59:52,000 --> 03:59:54,800
That was Pure Fantasy evening, 
wear featured, massive, 

4281
03:59:54,800 --> 03:59:58,900
quantities of sequins beads and 
metallic Fabrics hair got bigger

4282
03:59:58,900 --> 04:00:01,000
jewelry. 
Got more elaborate and makeup 

4283
04:00:01,000 --> 04:00:03,400
became more dramatic. 
It was fashioned designed to be 

4284
04:00:03,408 --> 04:00:06,600
seen from the back row of a 
theater except people wore it to

4285
04:00:06,600 --> 04:00:09,300
dinner. 
Casual wear during the 1980s was

4286
04:00:09,300 --> 04:00:13,500
equally excessive athletic wear 
became Street fashion but not 

4287
04:00:13,500 --> 04:00:15,800
the simple athletic wear of 
previous decades. 

4288
04:00:15,800 --> 04:00:19,200
This was athletic wear designed 
by fashion designers who 

4289
04:00:19,200 --> 04:00:21,800
apparently thought that exercise
clothes should be suitable for 

4290
04:00:21,800 --> 04:00:26,000
Las Vegas showrooms, neon 
colors, metallic fabrics, and 

4291
04:00:26,000 --> 04:00:28,900
geometric patterns created work 
out clothes, that were more 

4292
04:00:28,900 --> 04:00:31,600
about making fashion statements 
than actual working out. 

4293
04:00:32,900 --> 04:00:36,100
The decade also saw the rise of 
Youth fashion as a commercial 

4294
04:00:36,100 --> 04:00:40,300
force in dependent of adult 
fashion, MTV launched in 1981. 

4295
04:00:40,300 --> 04:00:43,000
And suddenly, young people had a
visual reference for how 

4296
04:00:43,000 --> 04:00:46,300
musicians dressed. 
Fashion became faster or 

4297
04:00:46,300 --> 04:00:48,900
immediate and more tied to 
popular culture than ever 

4298
04:00:48,900 --> 04:00:50,900
before. 
What you wore became a way of 

4299
04:00:50,908 --> 04:00:54,300
showing which bands you like, 
which movies you'd seen, which 

4300
04:00:54,300 --> 04:00:57,600
cultural tribes, you belong to 
punk, fashion evolved during the

4301
04:00:57,608 --> 04:01:01,900
1980s into New Wave style, which
took punks rebellious aesthetic 

4302
04:01:01,900 --> 04:01:04,000
and made it more wearable and 
commercially viable. 

4303
04:01:04,000 --> 04:01:07,300
The result was fashion that was 
edgy and artistic but didn't 

4304
04:01:07,300 --> 04:01:09,600
require safety pins or 
deliberate ugliness. 

4305
04:01:09,600 --> 04:01:13,500
It was Rebellion with better 
production values, the preppy 

4306
04:01:13,500 --> 04:01:16,700
look also became fashionable 
during the 1980s driven partly 

4307
04:01:16,700 --> 04:01:20,300
by Nostalgia for simpler times 
and partly by the popularity of 

4308
04:01:20,300 --> 04:01:23,600
films like The Breakfast Club, 
preppy fashion represented, 

4309
04:01:23,600 --> 04:01:26,800
security traditional and 
belonging to established social 

4310
04:01:26,800 --> 04:01:30,100
institutions, everything that 
Punk and New Wave fashion 

4311
04:01:30,100 --> 04:01:32,300
rejected. 
But perhaps the most interesting

4312
04:01:32,300 --> 04:01:36,700
aspect of 1980s, fashion was how
it embraced artificial materials

4313
04:01:36,700 --> 04:01:40,200
and construction. 
Ethnic Fabrics, structured 

4314
04:01:40,200 --> 04:01:43,000
Silhouettes and obviously 
manufactured looks became 

4315
04:01:43,000 --> 04:01:44,800
desirable rather than 
apologetic. 

4316
04:01:44,800 --> 04:01:47,900
It was the first decade when 
fashion, celebrated the fact 

4317
04:01:47,900 --> 04:01:50,500
that clothes were human made 
rather than trying to mimic 

4318
04:01:50,500 --> 04:01:54,000
natural forms and materials. 
Hair became a fashionable 

4319
04:01:54,000 --> 04:01:56,900
accessory in its own right 
during the 1980s, the bigger, 

4320
04:01:56,900 --> 04:02:00,800
the more, elaborate the better. 
Hairspray became a central 

4321
04:02:00,800 --> 04:02:03,800
fashion tool and hairstyles 
required architecture and 

4322
04:02:03,800 --> 04:02:05,600
engineering to maintain their 
structural Integrity. 

4323
04:02:05,600 --> 04:02:08,700
It was like, wearing sculpture 
on your head, except the 

4324
04:02:08,700 --> 04:02:11,300
sculpture was made of your own 
hair and industrial strength, 

4325
04:02:11,300 --> 04:02:15,200
styling products, color during 
the 1980s was intense. 

4326
04:02:15,200 --> 04:02:19,000
And often clashing, electric 
blue, hot pink acid, green, and 

4327
04:02:19,000 --> 04:02:21,700
metallic silver were combined in
ways that would have been 

4328
04:02:21,700 --> 04:02:25,000
considered garish in any other 
decade fashion, became 

4329
04:02:25,000 --> 04:02:27,800
fluorescent, glittery, and 
deliberately artificial. 

4330
04:02:27,800 --> 04:02:31,100
It was like wearing a neon sign 
which was exactly the point. 

4331
04:02:32,000 --> 04:02:33,900
The decade. 
Also introduced the concept of 

4332
04:02:33,900 --> 04:02:38,300
mix and match dressing taken to 
extreme different patterns, 

4333
04:02:38,300 --> 04:02:41,000
textures and colors were 
combined in ways that created 

4334
04:02:41,000 --> 04:02:44,700
visual chaos, but somehow worked
because everyone was doing it. 

4335
04:02:44,700 --> 04:02:48,100
It was fashioned democracy 
through excess if everyone was 

4336
04:02:48,100 --> 04:02:50,800
wearing too much of everything 
that no one looked out of place 

4337
04:02:50,800 --> 04:02:54,900
by 1990 fashion had reached such
Heights of excess that the only 

4338
04:02:54,900 --> 04:02:57,500
possible response was a complete
reaction in the opposite 

4339
04:02:57,500 --> 04:03:00,300
direction. 
The 1980s had been so much about

4340
04:03:00,300 --> 04:03:04,100
more that the 1990s would 
inevitably be about less. 

4341
04:03:05,100 --> 04:03:07,800
But before that happened, the 
1980s had established. 

4342
04:03:07,800 --> 04:03:10,600
Some important principles 
fashion could be fun 

4343
04:03:10,600 --> 04:03:14,200
experimental and completely 
divorced from practical 

4344
04:03:14,200 --> 04:03:17,200
considerations while still being
socially acceptable and 

4345
04:03:17,200 --> 04:03:20,700
commercially successful as the 
1990s donned fashion. 

4346
04:03:20,700 --> 04:03:23,800
Looked at the excess of the 
1980s and said, you know what, 

4347
04:03:23,800 --> 04:03:27,400
maybe we went a little overboard
with those shoulder pads, the 

4348
04:03:27,400 --> 04:03:30,300
decade began with what fashion 
historians, call the minimalist 

4349
04:03:30,300 --> 04:03:34,100
reaction, A complete swing away 
from the more is more philosophy

4350
04:03:34,100 --> 04:03:35,900
that had dominated the previous 
decade. 

4351
04:03:35,900 --> 04:03:39,000
Calvin Klein became the poster 
child for this new minimalism 

4352
04:03:39,000 --> 04:03:42,600
creating clothes that were clean
simple and almost architectural 

4353
04:03:42,600 --> 04:03:46,300
in their purity. 
His designs celebrated negative 

4354
04:03:46,300 --> 04:03:50,100
space neutral colors, and the 
beauty of perfect proportions. 

4355
04:03:50,100 --> 04:03:54,000
It was fashion that whispered 
rather than shouted, and after a

4356
04:03:54,000 --> 04:03:59,100
decade of shouting Whispering 
felt revolutionary But the 1990s

4357
04:03:59,100 --> 04:04:01,700
quickly proved that it wasn't 
going to settle for just one 

4358
04:04:01,700 --> 04:04:04,800
fashion philosophy. 
Grunge fashion emerged from the 

4359
04:04:04,800 --> 04:04:08,300
Pacific Northwest music scene. 
Bringing thrift store Aesthetics

4360
04:04:08,300 --> 04:04:11,500
into mainstream fashion flannel 
shirts, ripped jeans. 

4361
04:04:11,500 --> 04:04:14,500
And the deliberate anti-fashion 
aesthetic of bands like Nirvana 

4362
04:04:14,500 --> 04:04:18,600
created a look, that celebrated 
not caring about fashion, which 

4363
04:04:18,600 --> 04:04:22,000
paradoxically became a major 
fashion trend, Marc, Ecko 

4364
04:04:22,000 --> 04:04:25,700
Calvin, Klein and other 
designers took grunge influences

4365
04:04:25,700 --> 04:04:28,400
and refined them into something.
More wearable for people who 

4366
04:04:28,400 --> 04:04:31,000
wanted to look, casually 
rebellious without actually 

4367
04:04:31,000 --> 04:04:34,100
shopping at thrift stores, it 
was Rebellion with better fit 

4368
04:04:34,100 --> 04:04:37,700
and higher quality Fabrics, the 
gentrification of anti-fashion. 

4369
04:04:38,700 --> 04:04:41,400
The decade also saw the rise of 
streetwear as a legitimate 

4370
04:04:41,400 --> 04:04:44,400
fashion category, what people 
actually wore on the street 

4371
04:04:44,400 --> 04:04:48,900
sneakers hoodies, baseball caps 
and athletic wear became 

4372
04:04:48,900 --> 04:04:52,200
influences on high fashion. 
Rather than just copying 

4373
04:04:52,200 --> 04:04:54,800
high-fashion. 
It was the democratization of 

4374
04:04:54,800 --> 04:04:56,900
fashion influencer flowing from 
the bottom up. 

4375
04:04:56,900 --> 04:05:00,200
Rather than trickling down from 
the top, Hip-Hop culture became 

4376
04:05:00,200 --> 04:05:03,100
a major influence on mainstream 
fashion during the 1990s, 

4377
04:05:03,100 --> 04:05:07,100
bringing oversized clothing 
athletic wear and bold logos 

4378
04:05:07,100 --> 04:05:08,600
into General fashion 
Consciousness. 

4379
04:05:08,600 --> 04:05:12,500
Aesthetic celebrated Comfort 
movement and cultural identity 

4380
04:05:12,500 --> 04:05:15,300
in ways that traditional fashion
had never considered. 

4381
04:05:16,200 --> 04:05:18,700
It was fashion that acknowledged
that people wanted to look good 

4382
04:05:18,700 --> 04:05:20,100
while actually living their 
lives. 

4383
04:05:20,100 --> 04:05:23,100
The supermodel phenomenon 
reached its peak during the 

4384
04:05:23,100 --> 04:05:26,400
1990s, creating fashion 
celebrities, who were famous for

4385
04:05:26,400 --> 04:05:29,600
wearing clothes rather than for 
any other Talent models like 

4386
04:05:29,600 --> 04:05:33,000
Naomi Campbell Cindy, Crawford 
and Kate Moss became household 

4387
04:05:33,000 --> 04:05:35,800
names and their personal styles 
influenced fashion. 

4388
04:05:35,800 --> 04:05:39,100
As much as the designers they 
wore Technology began to 

4389
04:05:39,100 --> 04:05:43,000
influence fashion in new ways 
during the 1990s, new synthetic 

4390
04:05:43,000 --> 04:05:45,600
fabrics, offered performance 
characteristics that had never 

4391
04:05:45,608 --> 04:05:49,100
been available before. 
Moisture wicking UV, protection 

4392
04:05:49,100 --> 04:05:52,300
and temperature regulation, 
fashion began to acknowledge 

4393
04:05:52,300 --> 04:05:55,100
that clothes could be both 
beautiful and functional in ways

4394
04:05:55,100 --> 04:05:58,300
that previous generations, had 
never imagined the internet 

4395
04:05:58,300 --> 04:06:01,400
emerged as a fashion force, 
during the mid to late 1990s, 

4396
04:06:01,400 --> 04:06:04,400
though, its full impact wouldn't
be felt until the following 

4397
04:06:04,400 --> 04:06:07,800
decade online, shopping began to
change how people bought clothes

4398
04:06:07,800 --> 04:06:10,600
and fashion websites started to 
influence how people thought 

4399
04:06:10,600 --> 04:06:14,900
about style and trends. 
As we moved into the 2000s, 

4400
04:06:14,900 --> 04:06:18,300
fashion became increasingly 
fast-paced and diverse the 

4401
04:06:18,300 --> 04:06:21,400
concept of seasonal collections,
began to break down as designers

4402
04:06:21,400 --> 04:06:24,400
offered more frequent releases. 
Fast-fashion retailers could 

4403
04:06:24,400 --> 04:06:27,100
take a trend from the runway to 
the store in weeks rather than 

4404
04:06:27,100 --> 04:06:31,100
months democratizing fashion. 
But also accelerating its Pace 

4405
04:06:31,100 --> 04:06:34,400
in ways that were sometimes, 
overwhelming, the 2000s brought 

4406
04:06:34,400 --> 04:06:37,900
their own aesthetic revolutions.
The rise of Casual Friday that 

4407
04:06:37,900 --> 04:06:41,200
gradually expanded to Casual 
every day the influence of 

4408
04:06:41,208 --> 04:06:44,200
reality television on fashion 
and the beginning of social 

4409
04:06:44,200 --> 04:06:47,800
media's impact on how people 
thought about personal style, 

4410
04:06:47,800 --> 04:06:50,900
looking back over this entire 
Journey from animal skins to 

4411
04:06:50,900 --> 04:06:54,100
Instagram, worthy outfits. 
What's remarkable is how 

4412
04:06:54,100 --> 04:06:56,800
consistent certain human 
impulses have remained. 

4413
04:06:56,800 --> 04:07:00,700
People have always wanted to 
look good Express their identity

4414
04:07:00,700 --> 04:07:03,900
through their appearance and use
clothing, to navigate social 

4415
04:07:03,900 --> 04:07:07,800
situations, the materials 
technique and social contexts of

4416
04:07:07,808 --> 04:07:11,000
changed dramatically. 
But the fundamental human 

4417
04:07:11,000 --> 04:07:13,400
relationship with clothing has 
remained. 

4418
04:07:13,400 --> 04:07:16,700
Surprisingly constant, fashion 
has always been about solving 

4419
04:07:16,700 --> 04:07:20,000
problems protection from the 
elements, social signaling 

4420
04:07:20,000 --> 04:07:23,800
personal expression, and 
cultural belonging the solutions

4421
04:07:23,800 --> 04:07:26,800
have evolved from Mammoth hides 
to moisture-wicking synthetics. 

4422
04:07:26,800 --> 04:07:30,200
But the problems have remained 
recognizably human throughout 

4423
04:07:30,200 --> 04:07:32,500
history. 
So, here you are at the end of 

4424
04:07:32,508 --> 04:07:35,400
this journey, through fashion 
history, probably wearing the 

4425
04:07:35,400 --> 04:07:39,400
culmination of 170,000 years of 
human creativity and Ingenuity 

4426
04:07:39,400 --> 04:07:43,200
that comfortable t-shirt. 
You're wearing it represents the

4427
04:07:43,200 --> 04:07:44,600
development of cotton 
cultivation. 

4428
04:07:44,600 --> 04:07:48,400
Textile manufacturing, the 
invention of knitting machines 

4429
04:07:48,400 --> 04:07:52,300
the creation of synthetic dies 
and centuries of refinement in 

4430
04:07:52,300 --> 04:07:55,000
garment construction, those 
jeans you might have on 

4431
04:07:55,000 --> 04:07:56,600
represent the California, Gold 
Rush. 

4432
04:07:56,600 --> 04:08:00,400
The needs of working people for 
durable clothing the influence 

4433
04:08:00,400 --> 04:08:03,300
of American casual culture on 
global fashion and the 

4434
04:08:03,300 --> 04:08:06,000
transformation of work in to 
fashion statements. 

4435
04:08:06,000 --> 04:08:09,500
Even your socks? 
Yes, your socks. 

4436
04:08:10,000 --> 04:08:12,800
Represent Innovations in 
knitting synthetic fibers and 

4437
04:08:12,808 --> 04:08:14,600
foot comfort. 
That would have amazed our 

4438
04:08:14,600 --> 04:08:16,800
ancestors. 
The amazing thing is that you 

4439
04:08:16,800 --> 04:08:19,600
got dressed this morning in 
about 10 minutes, choosing from 

4440
04:08:19,600 --> 04:08:22,800
options that represent the best 
of human, textile, technology, 

4441
04:08:22,800 --> 04:08:25,300
and fashion design. 
And you probably didn't think 

4442
04:08:25,300 --> 04:08:28,400
about any of this history, you 
just wanted to put on something 

4443
04:08:28,400 --> 04:08:32,000
comfortable appropriate for your
day and maybe something that 

4444
04:08:32,000 --> 04:08:34,800
made you feel like yourself. 
That's the real Triumph of 

4445
04:08:34,808 --> 04:08:37,700
fashion history, not the 
elaborate Court dress or the 

4446
04:08:37,700 --> 04:08:40,900
Revolutionary designs but the 
fact that good clothing has 

4447
04:08:40,900 --> 04:08:44,100
become so accessible and 
unremarkable that we take it for

4448
04:08:44,100 --> 04:08:46,500
granted. 
Your closet contains options 

4449
04:08:46,500 --> 04:08:48,700
that would have been 
unimaginable luxuries to most 

4450
04:08:48,700 --> 04:08:52,600
humans throughout history. 
Fabrics that are soft durable 

4451
04:08:52,600 --> 04:08:56,200
and easy to care for colors that
won't fade after one washing 

4452
04:08:56,200 --> 04:08:59,600
clothes that fit your body in 
your lifestyle, seasonal, 

4453
04:08:59,600 --> 04:09:01,500
options, that keep you 
comfortable in any weather. 

4454
04:09:02,300 --> 04:09:04,600
The freedom to choose clothing 
that expresses your personality 

4455
04:09:04,600 --> 04:09:08,700
rather than just your social 
class or economic status even 

4456
04:09:08,700 --> 04:09:11,200
your most casual outfit 
represents solutions to problems

4457
04:09:11,200 --> 04:09:13,100
that occupied human Minds for 
millennia. 

4458
04:09:13,800 --> 04:09:15,500
How do you create fabric that 
breathes? 

4459
04:09:15,500 --> 04:09:18,700
But also protects, how do you 
make colors that last? 

4460
04:09:18,700 --> 04:09:21,400
How do you can construct? 
Garments that move with the body

4461
04:09:21,400 --> 04:09:24,500
without falling apart. 
How do you Mass produce clothing

4462
04:09:24,500 --> 04:09:26,900
while maintaining quality and 
individual Choice? 

4463
04:09:26,900 --> 04:09:30,100
The fashion industry today, 
grapples with new challenges 

4464
04:09:30,100 --> 04:09:32,000
that are ancestors never had to 
consider. 

4465
04:09:32,800 --> 04:09:37,300
Environmental sustainability, 
ethical manufacturing, the pace 

4466
04:09:37,300 --> 04:09:40,200
of trend cycles and the 
psychological effects of 

4467
04:09:40,200 --> 04:09:43,000
constant fashion messaging 
through social media. 

4468
04:09:43,000 --> 04:09:45,900
But these are the kinds of 
problems that come with success,

4469
04:09:45,900 --> 04:09:48,600
not failure. 
As you drift off to sleep 

4470
04:09:48,600 --> 04:09:52,900
tonight in your comfortable 
pajamas which by the way, are a 

4471
04:09:52,900 --> 04:09:55,400
relatively recent invention that
would have puzzled medieval 

4472
04:09:55,400 --> 04:09:58,100
people who slept in their day 
clothes or Nothing at All. 

4473
04:09:58,900 --> 04:10:02,100
Your participating in the latest
chapter of this ongoing. 

4474
04:10:02,100 --> 04:10:06,300
Human story fashion, continues 
to evolve, sustainable materials

4475
04:10:06,300 --> 04:10:08,600
are being developed from 
everything from mushroom, roots 

4476
04:10:08,600 --> 04:10:12,400
to recycled ocean, plastic, 
Smart Fabrics can monitor your 

4477
04:10:12,400 --> 04:10:15,500
health regulate your temperature
or even charge your phone? 

4478
04:10:15,500 --> 04:10:19,000
3D printing is beginning to 
create custom fitted garments. 

4479
04:10:19,000 --> 04:10:22,200
Virtual reality is changing how 
we shop for clothes. 

4480
04:10:22,200 --> 04:10:25,700
The same human creativity that 
turned animal skins into oat 

4481
04:10:25,700 --> 04:10:28,700
Couture continues to push 
fashioned into his territories 

4482
04:10:28,700 --> 04:10:31,400
as we can barely imagine. 
But whatever comes next in 

4483
04:10:31,400 --> 04:10:34,700
fashion, you will still be 
serving those same basic human 

4484
04:10:34,700 --> 04:10:37,600
needs that drove our ancestors 
to start wearing clothes in the 

4485
04:10:37,600 --> 04:10:43,100
first place protection, Comfort 
Beauty, and the Eternal desire 

4486
04:10:43,100 --> 04:10:46,100
to wake up in the morning and 
put on something, that makes us 

4487
04:10:46,100 --> 04:10:49,800
feel like the best version of 
ourselves sweet dreams, and may 

4488
04:10:49,800 --> 04:10:51,600
you always have something 
wonderful to wear. 

4489
04:10:57,600 --> 04:11:01,000
Imagine standing in a medieval 
village at Twilight when the sun

4490
04:11:01,000 --> 04:11:04,200
has just dipped below the 
Horizon and the world exists in 

4491
04:11:04,200 --> 04:11:07,800
that peculiar in between light, 
where shapes become uncertain, 

4492
04:11:07,800 --> 04:11:10,300
the forge fire glows. 
Orange in the blacksmith. 

4493
04:11:10,300 --> 04:11:14,400
Shop smoke rises from thatched 
roofs and somewhere a dog barks 

4494
04:11:14,400 --> 04:11:15,500
at something. 
You cannot see. 

4495
04:11:15,500 --> 04:11:19,800
This is the world where the idea
of witches took root not as a 

4496
04:11:19,800 --> 04:11:23,200
sudden invention, but as a slow,
accumulation of older, beliefs 

4497
04:11:23,200 --> 04:11:26,800
mixing with newer, fears like 
sediments settling at the bottom

4498
04:11:26,800 --> 04:11:29,400
of a river over. 
Centuries long before anyone 

4499
04:11:29,400 --> 04:11:31,800
spoke of witches in the way we 
understand them. 

4500
04:11:31,800 --> 04:11:34,800
Now, people believed in Magic as
naturally as they believed in, 

4501
04:11:34,800 --> 04:11:38,300
whether if you lived in Ancient 
Rome or Greece, you might visit 

4502
04:11:38,300 --> 04:11:41,400
a local wise woman for a love 
charm or Pace someone to curse 

4503
04:11:41,400 --> 04:11:44,200
your business rival. 
Magic was simply another tool 

4504
04:11:44,200 --> 04:11:47,600
morally, neutral available to 
anyone willing to learn the 

4505
04:11:47,600 --> 04:11:50,200
formulas, and make the proper 
offerings to the right gods. 

4506
04:11:51,100 --> 04:11:55,000
But these were small, Magic's 
personal and local, the witch 

4507
04:11:55,000 --> 04:11:57,100
hunts that would eventually 
sweep across Europe. 

4508
04:11:57,100 --> 04:11:59,500
And leek, the Atlantic to 
America required, something 

4509
04:11:59,500 --> 04:12:02,200
more. 
A complete reorganization of how

4510
04:12:02,200 --> 04:12:06,600
people understood evil itself. 
Christianity, brought with it a 

4511
04:12:06,600 --> 04:12:09,400
new cosmology. 
The universe divided between 

4512
04:12:09,400 --> 04:12:11,800
absolute good. 
And absolute evil with very 

4513
04:12:11,800 --> 04:12:14,500
little room for the comfortable 
gray areas, where ancient magic 

4514
04:12:14,500 --> 04:12:17,500
had lived, the old gods and 
Spirits, who had been neutral or

4515
04:12:17,500 --> 04:12:19,600
even helpful became in 
Christian. 

4516
04:12:19,600 --> 04:12:22,400
Theology, demons pretending to 
be something else. 

4517
04:12:23,200 --> 04:12:26,500
That helpful household Spirit 
your grandmother left bread for 

4518
04:12:26,500 --> 04:12:28,300
now. 
It was a Devil in Disguise 

4519
04:12:28,300 --> 04:12:31,200
trying to steal your soul. 
This transformation happened 

4520
04:12:31,200 --> 04:12:34,700
slowly over centuries among 
working by candlelight in a 

4521
04:12:34,700 --> 04:12:37,500
sixth Century scriptorium had 
different concerns than a 

4522
04:12:37,500 --> 04:12:40,500
village priest in the 12th 
century who in turn understood 

4523
04:12:40,500 --> 04:12:43,400
the world differently than the 
inquisitors of the 15th century.

4524
04:12:43,400 --> 04:12:47,300
Each generation added layers to 
the concept, like a pearl 

4525
04:12:47,300 --> 04:12:52,000
forming around a great of sand. 
By the medieval period educated 

4526
04:12:52,000 --> 04:12:53,800
theologians had begun 
constructing. 

4527
04:12:53,800 --> 04:12:56,500
Elaborate theories about how 
demons operated in the world. 

4528
04:12:56,500 --> 04:12:59,400
They wrote thick books to 
debating whether demons could 

4529
04:12:59,400 --> 04:13:02,400
physically transport people 
through the air, whether they 

4530
04:13:02,400 --> 04:13:05,200
could take physical form and 
where the contracts with the 

4531
04:13:05,200 --> 04:13:08,300
devil needed to be written in 
blood or if a verbal agreements 

4532
04:13:08,300 --> 04:13:10,900
of ice, these debates were 
conducted with the same 

4533
04:13:10,900 --> 04:13:13,700
seriousness that modern lawyers 
bring to contract law. 

4534
04:13:14,400 --> 04:13:18,000
Is to these thinkers, demonic 
interaction was absolutely real.

4535
04:13:19,100 --> 04:13:22,100
But here's something interesting
for most of the Middle Ages 

4536
04:13:22,100 --> 04:13:25,800
while Scholars were writing. 
These elaborate theories actual 

4537
04:13:25,800 --> 04:13:28,100
accusations of Witchcraft were 
relatively rare. 

4538
04:13:28,100 --> 04:13:31,300
The church was actually more 
likely to prosecute people for 

4539
04:13:31,300 --> 04:13:33,700
claiming that witches existed 
and could harm others. 

4540
04:13:33,700 --> 04:13:37,200
The official position recorded 
in a document called the Canon 

4541
04:13:37,200 --> 04:13:40,100
episcopi was that belief in 
which is flying through the 

4542
04:13:40,100 --> 04:13:42,000
night sky was foolish 
Superstition. 

4543
04:13:42,000 --> 04:13:44,800
If you claimed your neighbor 
could transform into an animal 

4544
04:13:44,800 --> 04:13:47,900
and curse your cow, you might be
the one in trouble for believing

4545
04:13:47,900 --> 04:13:51,200
such nonsense. 
This creates a curious Paradox, 

4546
04:13:51,200 --> 04:13:54,000
the intellectual framework for 
which hunting was being 

4547
04:13:54,000 --> 04:13:57,100
constructed, while the authority
simultaneously denied that such 

4548
04:13:57,100 --> 04:13:59,700
things were possible, it's like 
building a details. 

4549
04:13:59,700 --> 04:14:02,200
Blueprint from a machine while 
insisting, the machine could 

4550
04:14:02,200 --> 04:14:06,100
never actually work. 
The Village experience was 

4551
04:14:06,100 --> 04:14:09,200
different from the scholarly. 
One in small communities, where 

4552
04:14:09,200 --> 04:14:12,200
everyone knew everyone else's 
business, where your survival 

4553
04:14:12,200 --> 04:14:14,900
might depend on your neighbor's,
helping with the Harvest or 

4554
04:14:14,900 --> 04:14:18,300
lending you seed grain during a 
bad year, there was always a 

4555
04:14:18,300 --> 04:14:21,600
need to explain Misfortune. 
Why did your child die when your

4556
04:14:21,600 --> 04:14:24,000
neighbor's thrived? 
Why did your crops fail while 

4557
04:14:24,000 --> 04:14:26,600
hers flourished? 
Why did you feel a sudden pain 

4558
04:14:26,600 --> 04:14:29,200
in your leg after arguing with 
that old woman at the well? 

4559
04:14:29,200 --> 04:14:32,100
Every Community had people on 
its margins. 

4560
04:14:32,100 --> 04:14:34,900
The elderly Widow with no 
family, the strange hermit 

4561
04:14:34,900 --> 04:14:37,600
living at the forest edge. 
The woman whose medicinal 

4562
04:14:37,600 --> 04:14:40,900
knowledge seemed a little too 
effective and the Midwife Who 

4563
04:14:40,900 --> 04:14:42,500
Knew Too Much About Burton 
death. 

4564
04:14:42,500 --> 04:14:45,700
These people were useful, you 
needed healers after all. 

4565
04:14:45,700 --> 04:14:48,100
And someone had to help both 
babies and prepare the dead. 

4566
04:14:48,100 --> 04:14:51,000
But usefulness and suspicion 
have always been uneasy, 

4567
04:14:51,000 --> 04:14:53,600
neighbors the word, widget 
itself comes from the old 

4568
04:14:53,600 --> 04:14:57,100
English Wix, which simply meant 
someone who practiced magic or 

4569
04:14:57,100 --> 04:14:59,300
divination. 
But language is a living thing 

4570
04:14:59,300 --> 04:15:02,100
and a centuries, passed the word
accumulated. 

4571
04:15:02,100 --> 04:15:04,600
Darker meanings Gathering fear 
the way. 

4572
04:15:04,800 --> 04:15:08,600
Wool gathers burrs. 
In many villages, there were 

4573
04:15:08,600 --> 04:15:12,100
what we might call cunning folk 
people usually women but 

4574
04:15:12,100 --> 04:15:16,000
sometimes men who knew Herbal 
Remedies could help you find 

4575
04:15:16,000 --> 04:15:18,700
lost objects. 
Might tell your fortune or 

4576
04:15:18,700 --> 04:15:20,600
provided charms to protect your 
livestock. 

4577
04:15:20,600 --> 04:15:24,800
They operated in a strange 
social space valued, but feared 

4578
04:15:24,800 --> 04:15:28,400
necessary but suspicious, you 
might visit one when your child 

4579
04:15:28,400 --> 04:15:31,400
has a fever, but you wouldn't 
necessarily want to sit next to 

4580
04:15:31,400 --> 04:15:34,400
them in church. 
These cunning folk had 

4581
04:15:34,400 --> 04:15:37,500
accumulated practical knowledge 
passed down through generations.

4582
04:15:37,500 --> 04:15:40,800
They knew which plants used 
pain, which herbs brought down 

4583
04:15:40,800 --> 04:15:44,300
fever, which fungi were poison 
and which were medicine. 

4584
04:15:45,000 --> 04:15:48,500
In a world without Doctors 
Without pharmacies without any 

4585
04:15:48,500 --> 04:15:51,200
formal Medical Care. 
This knowledge was essential, 

4586
04:15:51,200 --> 04:15:53,500
but knowledge, that seems 
magical when you don't 

4587
04:15:53,500 --> 04:15:55,400
understand. 
It can easily become frightening

4588
04:15:55,400 --> 04:15:59,700
when circumstances turn dark. 
The Medieval World was also one 

4589
04:15:59,700 --> 04:16:03,100
of intimate familiarity with 
death and suffering, childhood 

4590
04:16:03,100 --> 04:16:05,900
diseases that we now prevent 
with simple vaccines killed 

4591
04:16:05,900 --> 04:16:08,700
regularly. 
Infections from minor injuries, 

4592
04:16:08,700 --> 04:16:12,100
could prove fatal childbirth was
dangerous for both mother and 

4593
04:16:12,100 --> 04:16:16,900
baby crops failed livestock died
and because the actual causes of

4594
04:16:16,900 --> 04:16:19,300
these tragedies were invisible 
bacteria. 

4595
04:16:19,300 --> 04:16:23,300
Viruses genetic conditions in 
environmental factors people 

4596
04:16:23,300 --> 04:16:25,900
needed explanation that made 
sense within their worldview. 

4597
04:16:25,900 --> 04:16:30,100
If your neighbor insulted you on
Tuesday in your best cow died on

4598
04:16:30,108 --> 04:16:31,900
Wednesday, the connection seemed
obvious. 

4599
04:16:31,900 --> 04:16:35,500
Not because you were stupid or 
superstitious, but because you 

4600
04:16:35,500 --> 04:16:38,000
lived in a world where cause and
effect weren't clearly, 

4601
04:16:38,000 --> 04:16:40,900
understood where coincidence and
correlation were 

4602
04:16:40,900 --> 04:16:43,200
indistinguishable and where 
everyone around. 

4603
04:16:43,200 --> 04:16:46,600
You believe that malevolent will
could produce tangible harm. 

4604
04:16:47,500 --> 04:16:49,800
Picture in the 14th and 15th 
centuries. 

4605
04:16:49,800 --> 04:16:52,700
And you're looking at a world 
being fundamentally remade by 

4606
04:16:52,700 --> 04:16:56,300
forces, that seemed to the 
people living through them, like

4607
04:16:56,300 --> 04:17:01,400
the end times themselves. 
The Black Death arrived in 1347 

4608
04:17:01,400 --> 04:17:03,900
and killed somewhere between a 
third and half of Europe's 

4609
04:17:03,900 --> 04:17:05,700
entire population over the next 
few years. 

4610
04:17:05,700 --> 04:17:09,100
Imagine watching half the people
in your town die in a matter of 

4611
04:17:09,100 --> 04:17:11,200
months. 
Their bodies covered in Black 

4612
04:17:11,200 --> 04:17:14,400
swellings coughing, blood 
Delirious with fever. 

4613
04:17:14,400 --> 04:17:16,700
Imagine the smell of mass 
Graves. 

4614
04:17:16,700 --> 04:17:20,400
The silence where children's 
voices used to be and the empty 

4615
04:17:20,400 --> 04:17:23,400
houses with doors standing open 
because no one was left to close

4616
04:17:23,400 --> 04:17:26,000
them. 
Survivors emerged into a 

4617
04:17:26,000 --> 04:17:29,400
transformed World. 
Labor was suddenly scarce and 

4618
04:17:29,400 --> 04:17:32,800
valuable the old social order 
where peasants knew their place 

4619
04:17:32,800 --> 04:17:37,100
and Noble theirs began to crack 
Church, which had promised 

4620
04:17:37,100 --> 04:17:40,500
protection and salvation had 
proved unable to stop the dying.

4621
04:17:40,500 --> 04:17:44,400
Everyone wanted explanations and
disease caused by bacteria. 

4622
04:17:44,400 --> 04:17:47,100
Spread by fleas on rats. 
Wasn't available as an answer. 

4623
04:17:48,000 --> 04:17:51,700
In this traumatized 
destabilized, world came a 

4624
04:17:51,700 --> 04:17:54,200
rising anxiety about heresy and 
spiritual corruption. 

4625
04:17:54,200 --> 04:17:58,100
The church was fighting battles.
On multiple fronts against 

4626
04:17:58,100 --> 04:18:01,400
Muslim expansion, in the East 
against internal reform 

4627
04:18:01,400 --> 04:18:04,500
movements that questioned people
Authority and against the 

4628
04:18:04,500 --> 04:18:06,600
lingering presence of 
non-Christian traditions. 

4629
04:18:06,600 --> 04:18:10,300
In rural areas that had been 
nominally, converted centuries 

4630
04:18:10,300 --> 04:18:13,200
earlier, but still practiced old
rituals under a thin veneer of 

4631
04:18:13,200 --> 04:18:16,200
Christianity. 
The Spanish Reconquista had 

4632
04:18:16,200 --> 04:18:18,900
created anxiety about religious 
and cultural Purity. 

4633
04:18:18,900 --> 04:18:21,300
The cathars had been brutally 
suppressed. 

4634
04:18:21,300 --> 04:18:25,200
The waldensians were being 
hunted, Jewish communities faced

4635
04:18:25,200 --> 04:18:28,300
increasing, persecution Europe 
was becoming obsessed with 

4636
04:18:28,300 --> 04:18:31,400
finding and eliminating 
religious contamination like 

4637
04:18:31,400 --> 04:18:34,400
someone with severe anxiety 
constantly checking for dirt. 

4638
04:18:34,400 --> 04:18:35,800
That might not actually be 
there. 

4639
04:18:36,800 --> 04:18:39,700
The printing press arrived in 
the mid-15th century and 

4640
04:18:39,700 --> 04:18:42,600
suddenly ideas could spread 
faster than ever before. 

4641
04:18:42,600 --> 04:18:46,300
This wasn't just good news. 
It also meant that fears 

4642
04:18:46,300 --> 04:18:50,200
accusations and theories about 
evil could circulate and 

4643
04:18:50,200 --> 04:18:52,600
reinforce themselves across vast
distances. 

4644
04:18:52,600 --> 04:18:57,000
A wild accusation in one region 
can be printed distributed and 

4645
04:18:57,000 --> 04:19:00,000
Inspire similar accusations, 
hundreds of miles away. 

4646
04:19:00,900 --> 04:19:06,000
In 1484 Pope Innocent, 8 issued 
a papal, bull acknowledging, the

4647
04:19:06,000 --> 04:19:09,000
existence of, which is an 
authorizing inquisitors to 

4648
04:19:09,000 --> 04:19:12,200
prosecute them. 
This was a significant shift 

4649
04:19:12,200 --> 04:19:15,400
from early church positions. 
The official stance had moved 

4650
04:19:15,400 --> 04:19:18,900
from believing in witches is 
superstitious Notions to which 

4651
04:19:18,900 --> 04:19:23,200
is a real and must be destroyed.
Two Dominican inquisitors, 

4652
04:19:23,200 --> 04:19:25,300
Heinrich Kramer and Jacob 
sprenger. 

4653
04:19:25,300 --> 04:19:30,000
Took this authorization and ran 
with it in 1487, they published 

4654
04:19:30,000 --> 04:19:33,500
the malleus maleficarum, the 
hammer of witches, which would 

4655
04:19:33,500 --> 04:19:36,200
become the most influential 
guide to which hunting ever 

4656
04:19:36,200 --> 04:19:37,900
written. 
It was essentially an 

4657
04:19:37,900 --> 04:19:40,500
instruction manual for 
identifying interrogating and 

4658
04:19:40,500 --> 04:19:43,000
Prosecuting witches. 
Complete with theological 

4659
04:19:43,000 --> 04:19:45,200
justification and practical 
advice. 

4660
04:19:46,000 --> 04:19:47,900
The malleus is a deeply strange 
document. 

4661
04:19:47,900 --> 04:19:51,300
If you read it today it contains
elaborate arguments about why 

4662
04:19:51,300 --> 04:19:54,100
women are more susceptible to 
demonic corruption than men. 

4663
04:19:54,800 --> 04:19:57,600
Spoiler, the authors believed 
women were intellectually and 

4664
04:19:57,600 --> 04:20:00,700
morally weaker it describes in 
detail, how to conduct 

4665
04:20:00,700 --> 04:20:03,700
interrogation and torture 
sessions, it explains what 

4666
04:20:03,700 --> 04:20:06,900
questions to ask, how to 
interpret answers, and why 

4667
04:20:06,900 --> 04:20:09,500
denials of guilt should be 
treated as confirmations of 

4668
04:20:09,500 --> 04:20:12,300
guilt. 
One particularly dark innovation

4669
04:20:12,300 --> 04:20:15,600
in the malleus was its approach 
to evidence traditional legal 

4670
04:20:15,600 --> 04:20:19,100
systems required, Clear Proof of
harm but which Hunters argued 

4671
04:20:19,100 --> 04:20:21,700
that witchcraft was a secret 
crime that left, no visible 

4672
04:20:21,700 --> 04:20:24,400
evidence. 
Therefore rumor reputation and 

4673
04:20:24,400 --> 04:20:27,800
spectral evidence claims that 
the accused person spirit or 

4674
04:20:27,800 --> 04:20:30,000
demon had appeared. 
To the accuser could be 

4675
04:20:30,000 --> 04:20:32,900
acceptable in court, this 
essentially meant that 

4676
04:20:32,900 --> 04:20:37,400
accusations themselves, became 
evidence creating a system where

4677
04:20:37,400 --> 04:20:39,000
defending yourself was nearly 
impossible. 

4678
04:20:39,000 --> 04:20:43,300
The book was reprinted dozens of
times and became standard 

4679
04:20:43,300 --> 04:20:45,600
reading for judges and 
inquisitors across Europe. 

4680
04:20:45,600 --> 04:20:49,200
It's Darkly ironic that one of 
the first best sellers created 

4681
04:20:49,200 --> 04:20:52,400
by printing press technology. 
Was an instruction manual for 

4682
04:20:52,400 --> 04:20:56,000
persecution but we should be 
careful not to imagine this as 

4683
04:20:56,000 --> 04:20:59,100
solely a top-down Phenomenon 
with authorities forcing, which 

4684
04:20:59,100 --> 04:21:01,400
trials on reluctant 
population's. 

4685
04:21:01,400 --> 04:21:04,100
The reality was more complex and
more disturbing. 

4686
04:21:04,900 --> 04:21:08,300
Communities, often initiated 
accusations themselves, bringing

4687
04:21:08,300 --> 04:21:10,400
suspects to authorities and 
demanding action. 

4688
04:21:10,400 --> 04:21:13,300
The witch, hunts worked because 
they taped into existing 

4689
04:21:13,300 --> 04:21:16,000
tensions, fears and conflicts 
within communities. 

4690
04:21:16,000 --> 04:21:20,400
Economic anxiety, played a role 
as medieval economies began 

4691
04:21:20,400 --> 04:21:22,100
transforming into early 
capitalism. 

4692
04:21:22,100 --> 04:21:25,000
Traditional social safety nets 
were fraying. 

4693
04:21:25,000 --> 04:21:28,300
The woman baking at your door 
who turned away because you had 

4694
04:21:28,300 --> 04:21:30,800
little yourself. 
Might later be accused of 

4695
04:21:30,800 --> 04:21:34,200
cursing, you out of Revenge 
guilt, fear and 

4696
04:21:34,200 --> 04:21:37,400
self-justification could blend 
into accusations that protected 

4697
04:21:37,400 --> 04:21:39,500
you from having to examine your 
own moral choices. 

4698
04:21:41,000 --> 04:21:43,400
Religious anxiety, also 
intensified during the 

4699
04:21:43,400 --> 04:21:46,400
Reformation as Christianity 
fractured into competing 

4700
04:21:46,400 --> 04:21:49,300
versions of Truth, everyone 
became more concerned about 

4701
04:21:49,300 --> 04:21:52,900
spiritual contamination. 
Catholics accused Protestants of

4702
04:21:52,900 --> 04:21:56,100
being in League with the devil 
Protestants returned, the favor 

4703
04:21:56,100 --> 04:21:58,200
communities. 
That had lived with religious 

4704
04:21:58,200 --> 04:22:00,900
ambiguity, for centuries, 
suddenly demanded Clarity and 

4705
04:22:00,908 --> 04:22:04,400
Purity and anyone who didn't fit
the approved model became 

4706
04:22:04,400 --> 04:22:07,900
suspect. 
The little Ice Age, appeared of 

4707
04:22:07,900 --> 04:22:11,500
cooling temperatures that began 
in the 14th century and lasted 

4708
04:22:11,500 --> 04:22:15,400
into the 19th, contributed to 
agricultural failures famines. 

4709
04:22:15,400 --> 04:22:18,800
And social stress, when your 
crops faild year, after year, 

4710
04:22:18,800 --> 04:22:20,900
when someone never quite 
arrived. 

4711
04:22:20,900 --> 04:22:24,100
And when winter seemed endless, 
it was easy to believe that 

4712
04:22:24,100 --> 04:22:25,600
someone had cursed, the weather 
itself. 

4713
04:22:25,600 --> 04:22:28,300
Climate change has always 
created scapegoats. 

4714
04:22:29,500 --> 04:22:32,600
The early organized, Witch 
Trials, began in the Alps, in 

4715
04:22:32,600 --> 04:22:35,600
the Border regions between 
Switzerland, France and Italy in

4716
04:22:35,600 --> 04:22:39,100
the early 15th century. 
These mountainous areas where 

4717
04:22:39,100 --> 04:22:42,100
small communities lived in 
relative isolation became 

4718
04:22:42,100 --> 04:22:44,900
laboratory for developing witch,
hunting practices, that would 

4719
04:22:44,900 --> 04:22:48,900
later spread across Europe. 
The trials in valet Switzerland 

4720
04:22:48,900 --> 04:22:53,200
in the 1420s and 1430 
established patterns that would 

4721
04:22:53,200 --> 04:22:55,700
be repeated. 
For centuries accusations, 

4722
04:22:55,700 --> 04:22:58,500
typically started with someone 
explaining their Misfortune 

4723
04:22:58,500 --> 04:23:03,000
illness death or crop failure by
pointing to a recent interaction

4724
04:23:03,000 --> 04:23:06,200
with the suspect neighbor under 
interrogation, which often 

4725
04:23:06,200 --> 04:23:08,600
included torture. 
The accused might confess to 

4726
04:23:08,600 --> 04:23:11,600
meeting with the devil, flying 
through the night, sky to secret

4727
04:23:11,600 --> 04:23:14,700
Gatherings or causing harm 
through Supernatural means. 

4728
04:23:14,700 --> 04:23:17,500
Here's where these early trials 
developed something. 

4729
04:23:17,500 --> 04:23:21,800
Particularly Insidious, once you
confess to being a witch, you 

4730
04:23:21,800 --> 04:23:24,000
were expected to name. 
Other witches who had attended 

4731
04:23:24,000 --> 04:23:28,000
the secret meetings, this 
created a Cascade effect where 

4732
04:23:28,000 --> 04:23:30,100
one accusation could bloom into 
dozens. 

4733
04:23:30,100 --> 04:23:33,500
Torture made people say what 
they thought, might stop the 

4734
04:23:33,500 --> 04:23:37,500
pain, including implicating 
friends, neighbors and family 

4735
04:23:37,500 --> 04:23:39,600
members. 
It was a system that fed on 

4736
04:23:39,608 --> 04:23:43,100
itself growing larger with each 
new name, extracted from a 

4737
04:23:43,100 --> 04:23:46,200
person in agony the accused in 
these early trials were 

4738
04:23:46,200 --> 04:23:50,300
predominantly Older women, often
widows, usually poor, but not 

4739
04:23:50,300 --> 04:23:53,700
always sometimes the accusations
Reach, people, with property, 

4740
04:23:53,700 --> 04:23:56,100
with status. 
And with connections, this 

4741
04:23:56,100 --> 04:24:00,200
created a strange dynamic. 
Witch-hunting could destabilize 

4742
04:24:00,200 --> 04:24:03,200
social hierarchies, allowing the
powerless to strike at the 

4743
04:24:03,208 --> 04:24:06,700
powerful, through accusation. 
But it also reinforced existing 

4744
04:24:06,700 --> 04:24:10,100
power structures by primarily 
targeting the most vulnerable 

4745
04:24:11,000 --> 04:24:15,000
Imagine being a woman in your 
60s widowed, living alone in a 

4746
04:24:15,000 --> 04:24:18,200
small cottage at the edge of a 
village you've survived plague 

4747
04:24:18,200 --> 04:24:21,500
famine and the deaths of most 
people, you loved, you know, 

4748
04:24:21,500 --> 04:24:24,300
herbs and healing. 
Because you've had to when you 

4749
04:24:24,300 --> 04:24:26,900
walk through the village, 
younger people, sometimes, cross

4750
04:24:26,900 --> 04:24:30,100
themselves children dare each 
other to knock on your door. 

4751
04:24:30,900 --> 04:24:34,000
One day, a neighbor's child 
Falls ill, the neighbor 

4752
04:24:34,000 --> 04:24:36,200
remembers that you mustard 
something when she refused to 

4753
04:24:36,200 --> 04:24:39,800
sell you eggs last week. 
She tells her husband, he tells 

4754
04:24:39,800 --> 04:24:42,100
the village Elder. 
Someone mentioned that another 

4755
04:24:42,100 --> 04:24:44,000
child died. 
Three years ago, after your 

4756
04:24:44,000 --> 04:24:45,900
Shadow supposedly fell across 
their doorway. 

4757
04:24:45,900 --> 04:24:48,000
Others? 
Remember, unexplained accidents,

4758
04:24:48,000 --> 04:24:51,200
mysterious illnesses, and 
strange sounds in the night. 

4759
04:24:52,000 --> 04:24:54,500
Before you quite understand 
what's happening, you're being 

4760
04:24:54,508 --> 04:24:57,700
dragged before a magistrate 
people, you've known your entire

4761
04:24:57,700 --> 04:25:00,800
life testifier against you. 
Their faces a mixture of fear 

4762
04:25:00,808 --> 04:25:02,600
and what looks almost like 
relief. 

4763
04:25:02,600 --> 04:25:07,400
There are of you, yes, perhaps 
all of their own doubts, their 

4764
04:25:07,400 --> 04:25:10,300
own uncharitable thoughts, and 
their own failures to embody 

4765
04:25:10,300 --> 04:25:13,700
Christian love, projecting evil 
on to you make their own 

4766
04:25:13,700 --> 04:25:17,400
compromises more bearable. 
The interrogation begins gently?

4767
04:25:17,400 --> 04:25:21,200
You are simple questions. 
Do you attend church regularly? 

4768
04:25:21,200 --> 04:25:24,600
Do you know the Lord's Prayer? 
Have you ever been angry with 

4769
04:25:24,600 --> 04:25:27,000
your neighbors? 
Have you ever wished harm on 

4770
04:25:27,000 --> 04:25:28,800
anyone? 
These seem like reasonable 

4771
04:25:28,800 --> 04:25:31,100
questions. 
Until you realize that everyone 

4772
04:25:31,100 --> 04:25:34,200
has been angry. 
Everyone has wished harm and 

4773
04:25:34,200 --> 04:25:37,300
admitting these Universal human 
feelings becomes evidence of 

4774
04:25:37,300 --> 04:25:38,600
demonic. 
Inclination. 

4775
04:25:38,600 --> 04:25:42,500
You try to defend yourself, but 
you're very defensiveness is 

4776
04:25:42,500 --> 04:25:45,800
taken as proof of guilt. 
Wouldn't an innocent person, 

4777
04:25:45,800 --> 04:25:47,800
accept God's judgment without 
protest. 

4778
04:25:47,800 --> 04:25:51,200
If you continue to protest, your
innocence torture might be 

4779
04:25:51,208 --> 04:25:55,100
applied, not out of Cruelty, the
authorities would insist, but 

4780
04:25:55,100 --> 04:25:58,200
out of necessity. 
Your body is already corrupted 

4781
04:25:58,200 --> 04:26:00,800
by the devil they believe. 
So pain applied to it is 

4782
04:26:00,800 --> 04:26:04,100
medicinal designed to force out 
the truth that the devil has hit

4783
04:26:04,100 --> 04:26:08,300
and the logic is circular and 
Perfect Resistance, proves guilt

4784
04:26:08,300 --> 04:26:11,600
confession proves guilt and 
there's no path that leads to 

4785
04:26:11,600 --> 04:26:16,600
Innocents once the process 
begins In Trier Germany between 

4786
04:26:16,600 --> 04:26:21,500
1581 and 1593 which trials 
resulted in the execution of 

4787
04:26:21,500 --> 04:26:25,500
around 360 people. 
The prince Archbishop who 

4788
04:26:25,500 --> 04:26:28,100
authorized these trials was 
himself later accused of being 

4789
04:26:28,100 --> 04:26:31,800
too lenient on, which is this is
the Alison Wonderland logic of 

4790
04:26:31,800 --> 04:26:35,500
which hunting moderation, 
becomes suspicious Mercy, 

4791
04:26:35,500 --> 04:26:39,100
becomes evidence of conspiracy. 
And the only way to prove your 

4792
04:26:39,100 --> 04:26:42,900
not sympathetic to, which is to 
find and burn more of them. 

4793
04:26:44,000 --> 04:26:49,400
In Bamberg Germany between 
discusses 1626 and 1631, perhaps

4794
04:26:49,400 --> 04:26:51,100
600 people were executed as 
witches. 

4795
04:26:51,100 --> 04:26:53,900
The witch-hunting became so 
extensive, that special 

4796
04:26:53,900 --> 04:26:56,000
buildings were constructed to 
handle the volume of 

4797
04:26:56,000 --> 04:27:00,400
interrogations and executions 
the drudens which house in 

4798
04:27:00,400 --> 04:27:03,000
Bamberg was essentially a 
torture Factory processing 

4799
04:27:03,000 --> 04:27:06,400
accusations with bureaucratic 
efficiency, but not everywhere. 

4800
04:27:06,400 --> 04:27:09,700
Succumbed to this Panic, some 
regions remained relatively 

4801
04:27:09,700 --> 04:27:13,400
Untouched by which trials some 
magistrates simply refused to 

4802
04:27:13,400 --> 04:27:15,700
prosecute some communities 
resist. 

4803
04:27:15,700 --> 04:27:18,100
The pressure to identify which 
is among their neighbors. 

4804
04:27:18,100 --> 04:27:22,300
This variability is important to
remember which hunting wasn't an

4805
04:27:22,300 --> 04:27:25,600
inevitable feature of the period
but a specific phenomenon that 

4806
04:27:25,600 --> 04:27:27,700
required particular conditions 
to flourish. 

4807
04:27:28,600 --> 04:27:31,600
Where, which hunting took hold 
it often followed patterns of 

4808
04:27:31,600 --> 04:27:35,900
social stress, a bad Harvest. 
An outbreak of disease, a 

4809
04:27:35,900 --> 04:27:37,900
military threat, economic 
disruption. 

4810
04:27:37,900 --> 04:27:40,400
These created anxiety that 
sought out. 

4811
04:27:40,400 --> 04:27:43,700
Let in accusation community, 
that maintained stronger social 

4812
04:27:43,700 --> 04:27:47,100
bonds, better conflict 
resolution mechanisms or more 

4813
04:27:47,108 --> 04:27:49,800
skeptical, authorities, often 
avoided, the worst excesses. 

4814
04:27:50,900 --> 04:27:54,100
The executioners themselves 
varied in some regions, 

4815
04:27:54,100 --> 04:27:56,600
convicted, witches were 
strangled before being burned, 

4816
04:27:56,600 --> 04:27:59,300
which was considered merciful in
others. 

4817
04:27:59,300 --> 04:28:02,800
They were burned alive, some 
were hanged, some were drowned. 

4818
04:28:03,500 --> 04:28:06,200
The methods reflected local 
custom and the severity of the 

4819
04:28:06,200 --> 04:28:09,000
supposed crime. 
Those who confessed and repented

4820
04:28:09,000 --> 04:28:11,800
might receive quicker deaths. 
Those who maintained their 

4821
04:28:11,800 --> 04:28:13,800
innocence. 
To the end were often subjected 

4822
04:28:13,800 --> 04:28:17,400
to the harshest punishments. 
What's haunting about reading 

4823
04:28:17,400 --> 04:28:21,200
trial, records is how ordinary 
everything seems the Scribe 

4824
04:28:21,200 --> 04:28:23,900
carefully records, the date, the
accused name and the charges 

4825
04:28:23,900 --> 04:28:26,500
Witnesses testifying 
matter-of-fact tones about 

4826
04:28:26,500 --> 04:28:29,900
supernatural events. 
Yes the accused appeared in my 

4827
04:28:29,908 --> 04:28:32,600
bedroom as a spirit. 
Yes I saw her flying. 

4828
04:28:32,600 --> 04:28:35,600
Yes she caused my cows milk to 
dry up. 

4829
04:28:35,600 --> 04:28:38,700
The supernatural was treated as 
simply another category of 

4830
04:28:38,700 --> 04:28:41,600
evidence like eyewitness 
testimony in a theft case. 

4831
04:28:41,600 --> 04:28:45,000
You might think that the 
Renaissance with its Revival of 

4832
04:28:45,000 --> 04:28:48,800
classical learning, its emphasis
on humanism and its scientific 

4833
04:28:48,800 --> 04:28:53,200
curiosity would have ended which
hunting instead the 16th and 

4834
04:28:53,200 --> 04:28:56,600
17th century saw Witch Trials, 
intensify and spread the same 

4835
04:28:56,600 --> 04:28:59,200
intellectual ferment that 
produced great art and early 

4836
04:28:59,200 --> 04:29:01,500
science. 
Also produced increasingly 

4837
04:29:01,500 --> 04:29:03,600
elaborate theories about demonic
intervention. 

4838
04:29:04,700 --> 04:29:07,600
This period saw some of the most
educated Minds in Europe, 

4839
04:29:07,600 --> 04:29:11,300
writing extensively about 
witchcraft, King James of 

4840
04:29:11,300 --> 04:29:15,700
Scotland later, James, the third
of England wrote demonology, a 

4841
04:29:15,700 --> 04:29:18,600
philosophical, exploration of 
Witchcraft that treated demonic 

4842
04:29:18,600 --> 04:29:21,800
intervention, as a subject, 
worthy of Royal scholarly 

4843
04:29:21,800 --> 04:29:24,600
attention, Jean bordeau. 
One of France's great, legal 

4844
04:29:24,600 --> 04:29:27,600
theorists and political 
philosophers wrote de la demo, 

4845
04:29:27,600 --> 04:29:31,100
namanny de Saucy, arguing, that 
witchcraft prosecutions should 

4846
04:29:31,100 --> 04:29:33,900
be more severe. 
And that judicial Mercy toward 

4847
04:29:33,900 --> 04:29:36,600
accused witches was itself a 
form of heresy. 

4848
04:29:38,200 --> 04:29:40,500
These were not ignorant, 
peasants spreading Superstition.

4849
04:29:40,500 --> 04:29:43,300
These were the intellectual 
Elite of their age. 

4850
04:29:43,300 --> 04:29:46,600
Applying the full force of their
learning to the question of how 

4851
04:29:46,600 --> 04:29:49,800
demons operated in the world. 
It's a reminder that 

4852
04:29:49,800 --> 04:29:52,400
intelligents and education. 
Don't automatically protect 

4853
04:29:52,400 --> 04:29:55,400
against systematic errors in 
thinking the specially when 

4854
04:29:55,400 --> 04:29:57,900
those errors are embedded in 
your cultures fundamental 

4855
04:29:57,900 --> 04:30:01,800
assumptions about reality. 
The Renaissance all, so saw the 

4856
04:30:01,808 --> 04:30:05,700
Witch Hunt, spread Northwood 
into Scandinavia and Eastwood in

4857
04:30:05,700 --> 04:30:09,000
Poland and Russia each region 
adapted, which hunting to its 

4858
04:30:09,000 --> 04:30:13,500
own cultural context and Avia 
accusations often involved, 

4859
04:30:13,500 --> 04:30:15,400
harmful magic against ships and 
sailors. 

4860
04:30:15,400 --> 04:30:18,600
Unsurprising in seafaring 
cultures were storms at Sea. 

4861
04:30:18,600 --> 04:30:21,800
Could mean, death and financial 
ruin in Eastern Europe, believe 

4862
04:30:21,800 --> 04:30:24,600
in vampires and werewolves, 
sometimes, merge with witchcraft

4863
04:30:24,600 --> 04:30:27,900
accusations creating local 
variations on the theme of 

4864
04:30:27,900 --> 04:30:31,900
malevolent Supernatural power. 
England developed its own 

4865
04:30:31,900 --> 04:30:35,100
distinctive approach to which 
hunting English Lord, didn't 

4866
04:30:35,100 --> 04:30:37,900
allow torture, except in cases 
of treason, which meant the 

4867
04:30:37,900 --> 04:30:39,300
confessions had to be obtained 
through. 

4868
04:30:39,300 --> 04:30:42,400
Other means, lengthy 
interrogations, sleep, 

4869
04:30:42,400 --> 04:30:45,800
deprivation isolation, and 
psychological pressure. 

4870
04:30:45,800 --> 04:30:49,800
The accusations in England, also
tended to focus more on malafaia

4871
04:30:49,800 --> 04:30:54,300
actual harmful magic rather than
the elaborate sabbaths and Demon

4872
04:30:54,300 --> 04:30:56,600
worship that dominated 
Continental trials. 

4873
04:30:58,300 --> 04:31:00,900
The most famous English witch 
hunter was Matthew Hopkins, who 

4874
04:31:00,900 --> 04:31:04,500
operated during the English 
Civil War in the 1640s, he 

4875
04:31:04,500 --> 04:31:07,100
called himself, the witchfinder 
general though. 

4876
04:31:07,100 --> 04:31:09,900
No one had actually appointed 
him to any such position and 

4877
04:31:09,900 --> 04:31:12,000
traveled through East Anglia 
finding, which is with 

4878
04:31:12,000 --> 04:31:14,800
disturbing efficiently. 
His methods were technically 

4879
04:31:14,800 --> 04:31:19,300
legal no torture officially but 
involved tactics like forced 

4880
04:31:19,300 --> 04:31:21,600
walking. 
Keeping suspects, awaken moving 

4881
04:31:21,600 --> 04:31:25,100
for days until they became 
delirious kicking searching for 

4882
04:31:25,100 --> 04:31:27,300
spots on the body that didn't 
believe or feel pain. 

4883
04:31:27,300 --> 04:31:31,300
Supposedly marks made by the 
devil and the swimming test 

4884
04:31:31,300 --> 04:31:34,100
binding suspects and throwing 
them in water to see if they 

4885
04:31:34,100 --> 04:31:37,800
floated which would prove guilt 
or sank which would prove 

4886
04:31:37,800 --> 04:31:42,000
innocence but might also result 
in drowning Hopkins operated for

4887
04:31:42,000 --> 04:31:45,600
only about two years but in that
time was responsible for perhaps

4888
04:31:45,600 --> 04:31:48,700
300 executions. 
What's particularly notable 

4889
04:31:48,700 --> 04:31:51,400
about his career is how it 
illustrates the entrepreneurial 

4890
04:31:51,400 --> 04:31:55,400
aspect of which hunting. 
Hopkins charged fees to towns 

4891
04:31:55,400 --> 04:31:58,400
for his Services, creating a 
financial incentive to find 

4892
04:31:58,400 --> 04:32:00,900
witches. 
This economic dimension of which

4893
04:32:00,900 --> 04:32:04,900
hunting is often overlooked Fear
was genuine, but it also became 

4894
04:32:04,900 --> 04:32:07,900
a business. 
Meanwhile in Scotland, which 

4895
04:32:07,900 --> 04:32:11,300
trials took on particular 
intensity Scottish law allowed 

4896
04:32:11,300 --> 04:32:14,200
torture and Scottish 
presbyterianism emphasis on 

4897
04:32:14,200 --> 04:32:17,200
rooting out sin created an 
environment where which hunting 

4898
04:32:17,200 --> 04:32:23,700
flourished between 1563 and 1736
somewhere between 200500 and 

4899
04:32:23,700 --> 04:32:28,100
4,000 people were executed as 
witches and Scotland, an 

4900
04:32:28,100 --> 04:32:30,800
extraordinarily High number for 
a relatively small population. 

4901
04:32:31,800 --> 04:32:34,800
The North Berwick Witch Trials 
of 15991. 

4902
04:32:35,600 --> 04:32:38,900
Involving accusations that are 
cover of, which is a tried to 

4903
04:32:38,900 --> 04:32:42,000
Murder, King James to six by 
raising storms at sea show. 

4904
04:32:42,000 --> 04:32:45,200
How Witch Trials could become 
entangled with politics, the 

4905
04:32:45,200 --> 04:32:47,700
accused included, both peasants 
and members of the nobility 

4906
04:32:48,700 --> 04:32:52,100
Confessions extracted, under 
torture described, elaborate 

4907
04:32:52,100 --> 04:32:55,000
rituals and plots. 
That conveniently implicated the

4908
04:32:55,000 --> 04:32:57,900
king's political enemies. 
Whether the king genuinely 

4909
04:32:57,900 --> 04:33:00,800
believed in the Supernatural 
threat or cynically used which 

4910
04:33:00,800 --> 04:33:02,600
accusations to eliminate 
opposition. 

4911
04:33:02,600 --> 04:33:06,800
The result was the same 
execution that reinforced royal 

4912
04:33:06,800 --> 04:33:09,200
power while purging potential 
threats. 

4913
04:33:10,000 --> 04:33:12,500
For the middle. 
This persecution skeptical 

4914
04:33:12,500 --> 04:33:15,500
voices were emerging Reginald, 
Scots, the discovery of 

4915
04:33:15,508 --> 04:33:19,599
Witchcraft published in 1584. 
Systematically argued against 

4916
04:33:19,599 --> 04:33:23,099
the reality of Witchcraft. 
Suggesting that supposed witches

4917
04:33:23,099 --> 04:33:26,700
were either victims of delusion,
mental illness or malicious 

4918
04:33:26,700 --> 04:33:29,200
accusation. 
King James was so offended by 

4919
04:33:29,200 --> 04:33:31,200
Scott's book, that he ordered 
copies burned. 

4920
04:33:31,200 --> 04:33:34,400
But the book survived and its 
arguments would eventually 

4921
04:33:34,400 --> 04:33:38,000
contribute to the decline of 
which hunting in the Holy Roman 

4922
04:33:38,000 --> 04:33:42,900
Empire, where the 30 Years War 
1618 to 1648 was tearing the 

4923
04:33:42,900 --> 04:33:46,200
region apart along religious 
lines, which hunting reached 

4924
04:33:46,200 --> 04:33:49,800
some of its most extreme 
manifestations invert. 

4925
04:33:49,800 --> 04:33:53,500
Prince Bishop Philip, Adolf on 
Aaron Berg presided over trials.

4926
04:33:53,500 --> 04:33:58,099
The executed around 900 people 
between 1626 and 1631. 

4927
04:33:58,099 --> 04:34:02,200
The victims included children, 
as young as seven members of the

4928
04:34:02,200 --> 04:34:05,700
nobility, and eventually people.
So clearly Innocent by any 

4929
04:34:05,700 --> 04:34:08,900
rational standard that the 
trials absurd to became 

4930
04:34:08,900 --> 04:34:10,700
undeniable even to 
contemporaries. 

4931
04:34:12,300 --> 04:34:16,099
The verts trials and cluded the 
creation of detailed records, 

4932
04:34:16,099 --> 04:34:19,599
including a chilling document 
listing, children, aged 4 to 14,

4933
04:34:19,599 --> 04:34:22,599
who are accused of having 
intercourse with demons, reading

4934
04:34:22,599 --> 04:34:25,000
such records centuries. 
Later produces a kind of 

4935
04:34:25,000 --> 04:34:27,500
vertigo. 
These were real children, whose 

4936
04:34:27,500 --> 04:34:30,599
names were carefully, recorded, 
who were tortured and killed by 

4937
04:34:30,599 --> 04:34:33,000
accusations that could not 
possibly have been true. 

4938
04:34:34,099 --> 04:34:37,500
What makes the Renaissance which
hunts particularly tragic is 

4939
04:34:37,500 --> 04:34:40,000
that they occurred during a 
period of genuine. 

4940
04:34:40,000 --> 04:34:43,099
Intellectual advancement the 
same Century that saw the 

4941
04:34:43,099 --> 04:34:44,800
publication of the malleus 
maleficarum. 

4942
04:34:44,800 --> 04:34:49,099
Also saw Columbus reaching the 
Americas, the same period that 

4943
04:34:49,099 --> 04:34:52,099
saw thousands burned as witches.
Also saw the development of 

4944
04:34:52,099 --> 04:34:56,099
movable type printing advances 
in medicine and the beginning of

4945
04:34:56,099 --> 04:34:59,000
modern astronomy Humanity's 
capacity for both. 

4946
04:34:59,000 --> 04:35:02,400
Brilliant and barbarity has 
never been more evident than in 

4947
04:35:02,400 --> 04:35:06,099
these contradictions. 
Now we cross the Atlantic to a 

4948
04:35:06,099 --> 04:35:10,900
small coastal settlement in 
Massachusetts where in 1692 some

4949
04:35:10,900 --> 04:35:14,400
of the most famous witch trials 
in history would unfold in a 

4950
04:35:14,400 --> 04:35:16,900
community that had fled Europe 
partly to escape religious 

4951
04:35:16,900 --> 04:35:21,099
persecution, only to recreate it
in new and devastating forms. 

4952
04:35:22,099 --> 04:35:25,200
Salem Village in the late. 17th 
century was not a happy place. 

4953
04:35:25,200 --> 04:35:28,400
It was a frontier community 
living in the shadow of ongoing 

4954
04:35:28,400 --> 04:35:32,099
conflicts with Native Americans.
King, William's War had brought 

4955
04:35:32,099 --> 04:35:35,500
violence close to home with 
raids and captivity narratives, 

4956
04:35:35,500 --> 04:35:38,400
creating constant anxiety. 
The Village was also 

4957
04:35:38,400 --> 04:35:42,400
experiencing internal tensions 
disputes over land arguments 

4958
04:35:42,400 --> 04:35:45,599
about the local Minister salary 
factional conflicts between 

4959
04:35:45,599 --> 04:35:47,500
farming families and Merchant 
families. 

4960
04:35:47,500 --> 04:35:50,099
And a general sense that the 
younger generation was 

4961
04:35:50,099 --> 04:35:52,700
abandoning the purity of their 
parents faith. 

4962
04:35:53,800 --> 04:35:56,800
Into this tense environment. 
Came a peculiar episode in the 

4963
04:35:56,800 --> 04:36:01,200
household of Reverend Samuel 
Parris in January, 1692 his 9 

4964
04:36:01,200 --> 04:36:03,599
year old daughter. 
Betty and 11 year old niece. 

4965
04:36:03,599 --> 04:36:07,599
Abigail began having strange, 
fits screaming throwing objects,

4966
04:36:07,599 --> 04:36:12,000
contorting their bodies and 
speaking nonsense a local doctor

4967
04:36:12,000 --> 04:36:14,300
unable to find physical causes 
suggested. 

4968
04:36:14,300 --> 04:36:17,400
They might be Bewitched an 
explanation that made sense 

4969
04:36:17,400 --> 04:36:20,599
within the worldview of Puritan 
Massachusetts, where Satan was 

4970
04:36:20,599 --> 04:36:22,500
seen as constantly working to 
corrupt. 

4971
04:36:22,500 --> 04:36:25,800
God's chosen people, the girls 
when pressed to name their 

4972
04:36:25,800 --> 04:36:30,200
tormentors eventually accused 
three women Tituba and enslaved.

4973
04:36:30,200 --> 04:36:33,800
Woman in the Parris household, 
Sarah Goode, a homeless beggar, 

4974
04:36:33,800 --> 04:36:37,200
and Sarah Osborne, an elderly 
woman who rarely attended 

4975
04:36:37,200 --> 04:36:39,500
church. 
These first three accused fit, 

4976
04:36:39,500 --> 04:36:42,700
the traditional profile of 
suspected witches marginal 

4977
04:36:42,700 --> 04:36:45,000
vulnerable an easy to believe in
love. 

4978
04:36:45,700 --> 04:36:47,599
What happened? 
Next transformed, a local 

4979
04:36:47,599 --> 04:36:51,000
episode in to a colony wide 
crisis under integration 

4980
04:36:51,000 --> 04:36:53,200
teacher. 
Perhaps hoping to avoid the 

4981
04:36:53,200 --> 04:36:55,400
worst punishment, perhaps 
pressured by her. 

4982
04:36:55,400 --> 04:36:58,900
Enslaver perhaps caught up in 
the theological expectations of 

4983
04:36:58,900 --> 04:37:02,500
her interrogators confessed, not
just to practicing witchcraft, 

4984
04:37:02,500 --> 04:37:06,000
but to participate in a 
conspiracy of witches operating 

4985
04:37:06,000 --> 04:37:08,900
throughout Massachusetts, she 
described meetings with the 

4986
04:37:08,900 --> 04:37:12,099
devil signing a book and the 
involvement of other women. 

4987
04:37:12,099 --> 04:37:13,700
She couldn't quite name or 
describe. 

4988
04:37:14,599 --> 04:37:17,900
This confession instead of 
ending the episode expanded. 

4989
04:37:17,900 --> 04:37:21,400
It if Tituba was telling the 
truth, then witchcraft was a 

4990
04:37:21,400 --> 04:37:24,500
real and immediate threat. 
If there was conspiracy then 

4991
04:37:24,500 --> 04:37:29,200
more witches must be identified.
The girls continue having fits 

4992
04:37:29,200 --> 04:37:32,800
and began making additional 
accusations other young women 

4993
04:37:32,800 --> 04:37:35,599
and girls in the community began
having similar symptoms. 

4994
04:37:35,599 --> 04:37:39,800
It was like a stone thrown into 
Stillwater, creating ripples 

4995
04:37:39,800 --> 04:37:42,500
that spread outward until they 
reached Far Beyond Salem 

4996
04:37:42,500 --> 04:37:46,200
Village. 
As accusations multiplied, the 

4997
04:37:46,200 --> 04:37:49,700
profile of the accused changed. 
The first victims had been 

4998
04:37:49,707 --> 04:37:52,700
marginal figures, but soon 
accusations were reaching 

4999
04:37:52,700 --> 04:37:56,099
respectable church members, 
property, owners, and even, a 

5000
04:37:56,099 --> 04:37:59,900
former Minister, Rebecca nurse a
71 year old woman known for 

5001
04:37:59,900 --> 04:38:03,400
Piatti was accused and 
eventually hanged despite strong

5002
04:38:03,400 --> 04:38:06,500
community support and an initial
jury quittell. 

5003
04:38:06,500 --> 04:38:09,300
That was overturned when the 
girls had fresh fits in the 

5004
04:38:09,300 --> 04:38:14,000
courtroom. 
The Salem trials proceeded in a 

5005
04:38:14,000 --> 04:38:16,200
legal environment that would 
seem surreal by modern 

5006
04:38:16,200 --> 04:38:19,200
standards. 
Spectral evidence testimony that

5007
04:38:19,200 --> 04:38:22,400
the accused Specter or spirited 
appeared to the witness was 

5008
04:38:22,400 --> 04:38:25,800
accepted as valid this created 
an impossible situation. 

5009
04:38:25,800 --> 04:38:29,300
How do you defend yourself 
against claims that your spirit 

5010
04:38:29,300 --> 04:38:31,800
was doing things? 
You weren't aware of the legal 

5011
04:38:31,800 --> 04:38:33,599
system. 
Essentially prosecuted people 

5012
04:38:33,599 --> 04:38:37,200
for their presumed Supernatural 
actions rather than anything we 

5013
04:38:37,200 --> 04:38:40,900
had actually done. 
Giles Corey an 80 year old 

5014
04:38:40,900 --> 04:38:43,500
farmer who refused to enter a 
plea to the charges against him 

5015
04:38:43,500 --> 04:38:47,800
was subjected to pressing heavy 
Stones placed on his chest until

5016
04:38:47,800 --> 04:38:49,400
he either agreed to plead or 
died. 

5017
04:38:49,400 --> 04:38:52,400
According to Legend his only 
words during two days of this, 

5018
04:38:52,400 --> 04:38:56,599
torture were more weight. 
He died without pleading, which 

5019
04:38:56,599 --> 04:38:59,300
under English law meant his 
property couldn't be confiscated

5020
04:38:59,300 --> 04:39:01,400
and would pass to his heirs, his
death. 

5021
04:39:01,400 --> 04:39:04,800
Meant to compel testimony 
instead became a silent protest 

5022
04:39:04,800 --> 04:39:09,099
against the proceedings. 
By the summer of 1692 Salem's, 

5023
04:39:09,099 --> 04:39:12,400
jails were overflowing with 
accused witches women, who were 

5024
04:39:12,400 --> 04:39:15,500
pregnant were spared execution, 
until after giving birth 

5025
04:39:15,500 --> 04:39:19,000
creating the Grimm spectacle of 
women giving birth in Chains, 

5026
04:39:19,000 --> 04:39:22,500
knowing they would be hanged. 
Once recovered children, as 

5027
04:39:22,500 --> 04:39:25,800
young as four were accused and 
imprisoned one of the accused 

5028
04:39:25,800 --> 04:39:29,099
Sarah good was hanged, while her
infant daughter born in prison 

5029
04:39:29,099 --> 04:39:31,700
died. 
Shortly after Sarah goodes. 

5030
04:39:31,700 --> 04:39:35,000
Final words from The Gallows, 
addressed to the minister urging

5031
04:39:35,000 --> 04:39:38,100
her to confess were reported as 
you're a liar. 

5032
04:39:38,108 --> 04:39:40,500
I am no more a witch than you 
are a wizard. 

5033
04:39:41,300 --> 04:39:44,000
And if you take away my life, 
God will give you blood to 

5034
04:39:44,000 --> 04:39:47,200
drink. 
By September, however, the 

5035
04:39:47,200 --> 04:39:50,800
accusation had reached so far up
the social hierarchy that they 

5036
04:39:50,800 --> 04:39:53,800
were becoming untenable when the
girls accused, the wife of 

5037
04:39:53,800 --> 04:39:56,300
Governor phips. 
When respected ministers began 

5038
04:39:56,300 --> 04:39:59,600
questioning the proceedings. 
And when juries started refusing

5039
04:39:59,600 --> 04:40:02,900
to convict despite spectral 
evidence, the Machinery of 

5040
04:40:02,900 --> 04:40:07,600
prosecution, began to slow. 
The crucial shift came and 

5041
04:40:07,600 --> 04:40:10,600
prominent ministers led by 
increased mother argued that 

5042
04:40:10,600 --> 04:40:12,800
spectral evidence shouldn't be 
allowed in court. 

5043
04:40:12,800 --> 04:40:16,500
His statement it were better, 
that 10 suspected witches should

5044
04:40:16,500 --> 04:40:19,100
Escape than the one innocent 
person should be condemned 

5045
04:40:19,100 --> 04:40:22,000
represented. 
A dramatic reversal of the logic

5046
04:40:22,000 --> 04:40:25,000
that had driven the trials 
without spectral evidence. 

5047
04:40:25,000 --> 04:40:30,300
Most cases collapsed By October.
1692 Governor phips dissolve, 

5048
04:40:30,300 --> 04:40:32,800
the special court that had been 
handling, witchcraft cases 

5049
04:40:33,700 --> 04:40:36,500
Remaining prisoners were 
gradually released many after 

5050
04:40:36,500 --> 04:40:40,600
posting Bond of those who had 
been executed. 19 hanged, one 

5051
04:40:40,600 --> 04:40:43,500
pressed to death, none would 
receive official pardons for 

5052
04:40:43,500 --> 04:40:46,800
centuries, the community having 
looked into an abyss of its own,

5053
04:40:46,800 --> 04:40:49,600
making collectively decided to 
stop looking and move on. 

5054
04:40:50,400 --> 04:40:53,400
What's particularly haunting 
about Salem is how quickly the 

5055
04:40:53,400 --> 04:40:56,900
episode ended once authorities, 
decided, it should end the same 

5056
04:40:56,900 --> 04:40:59,500
community that had been gripped,
by which hunting fever, and 

5057
04:40:59,500 --> 04:41:02,900
summer was releasing prisoners 
by fall this rapid reversal 

5058
04:41:02,900 --> 04:41:06,000
suggests that the trials had 
never been inevitable, the 

5059
04:41:06,000 --> 04:41:07,500
different choices by 
authorities. 

5060
04:41:07,500 --> 04:41:09,800
Could have prevented most or all
of the deaths. 

5061
04:41:09,800 --> 04:41:13,500
The 20 people who died did so 
not because witchcraft belief 

5062
04:41:13,500 --> 04:41:17,100
made their deaths unavoidable. 
But because specific individuals

5063
04:41:17,100 --> 04:41:20,900
in positions of authority made 
specific decisions to allow the 

5064
04:41:20,900 --> 04:41:25,000
prosecutions to proceed. 
The aftermath saw a slow 

5065
04:41:25,000 --> 04:41:27,200
incomplete process of 
acknowledgment. 

5066
04:41:27,200 --> 04:41:30,900
Some of the accusers later 
apologized and Putnam. 

5067
04:41:30,900 --> 04:41:34,000
One of the main accusers 
eventually made a public apology

5068
04:41:34,000 --> 04:41:36,200
in church. 
Blaming Satan for diluting. 

5069
04:41:36,200 --> 04:41:40,200
Her Samuel Sewell, one of the 
judges publicly confessed error 

5070
04:41:40,200 --> 04:41:42,800
but these apologies couldn't 
restore the dead or heal. 

5071
04:41:42,800 --> 04:41:46,200
The communities wounds Salem, 
spent Generations, living with 

5072
04:41:46,200 --> 04:41:47,500
the knowledge of what it had 
done. 

5073
04:41:47,508 --> 04:41:50,600
By the early 18th century, which
trials were becoming 

5074
04:41:50,600 --> 04:41:54,100
increasingly rare across Europe 
and the colonies, this declined 

5075
04:41:54,100 --> 04:41:55,600
wasn't the result of a single 
cause. 

5076
04:41:55,600 --> 04:41:59,000
But rather a convergence of 
factors, intellectual shifts, 

5077
04:41:59,000 --> 04:42:02,700
legal, reforms, religious 
changes, and perhaps simply 

5078
04:42:02,700 --> 04:42:04,800
exhaustion with Decades of 
persecution. 

5079
04:42:05,700 --> 04:42:09,000
The Scientific Revolution was 
transforming how educated 

5080
04:42:09,000 --> 04:42:12,200
Europeans understood causation. 
When you can see microorganisms 

5081
04:42:12,200 --> 04:42:15,600
through a microscope when you 
understand that diseases caused 

5082
04:42:15,600 --> 04:42:18,900
by infection rather than 
malevolent will and when you can

5083
04:42:18,900 --> 04:42:22,700
predict planetary motion through
mathematics, the supernatural 

5084
04:42:22,700 --> 04:42:25,700
explanation for Misfortune 
becomes less necessary. 

5085
04:42:25,700 --> 04:42:29,500
Not everyone accepted these new 
ideas immediately but they were 

5086
04:42:29,500 --> 04:42:32,100
available as alternative 
Frameworks for understanding the

5087
04:42:32,100 --> 04:42:34,000
world. 
The enlightenment brought 

5088
04:42:34,000 --> 04:42:36,700
increased skepticism toward 
traditional authorities and 

5089
04:42:36,700 --> 04:42:39,400
Supernatural claims 
philosophers, like Voltaire 

5090
04:42:39,400 --> 04:42:40,900
openly. 
Mocked Witch Trials. 

5091
04:42:40,900 --> 04:42:44,700
As superstitious barbarism, this
mockery created social pressure 

5092
04:42:44,700 --> 04:42:46,900
on authorities, who continue to 
Prosecuting witches. 

5093
04:42:46,900 --> 04:42:50,400
They risk being seen as backward
and credulous by the 

5094
04:42:50,400 --> 04:42:54,400
intellectual Fashions of their 
time, Legal reforms also played 

5095
04:42:54,400 --> 04:42:57,300
a role new evidentiary 
standards, made it harder to 

5096
04:42:57,300 --> 04:43:00,300
obtain convictions, based solely
on confessional reputation. 

5097
04:43:00,300 --> 04:43:03,700
The use of torture in judicial 
proceedings, gradually declined 

5098
04:43:03,700 --> 04:43:07,000
across Europe, partly from 
humanitarian concerns but also 

5099
04:43:07,000 --> 04:43:10,200
from growing recognition that 
torture produced unreliable 

5100
04:43:10,200 --> 04:43:13,100
evidence when authorities 
couldn't extract confession 

5101
04:43:13,100 --> 04:43:16,100
through pain, which 
prosecution's became much harder

5102
04:43:16,100 --> 04:43:20,000
to pursue, religious changes 
mattered too as Protestant and 

5103
04:43:20,000 --> 04:43:22,700
Catholic churches settled into 
co-existent after the 

5104
04:43:22,700 --> 04:43:25,800
devastating religious wars of 
the 16th and 17th centuries. 

5105
04:43:25,800 --> 04:43:29,400
The intense focus on spiritual 
Purity that had fueled which 

5106
04:43:29,400 --> 04:43:31,700
hunting began to ease 
communities. 

5107
04:43:31,700 --> 04:43:34,300
That had spent Generations 
fighting over correct Doctrine 

5108
04:43:34,300 --> 04:43:37,800
were exhausted by conflict and 
more interested in stability 

5109
04:43:37,800 --> 04:43:42,400
than in rooting out hidden evil.
Economic Development, created 

5110
04:43:42,400 --> 04:43:45,400
new social structures, that 
reduce the importance of 

5111
04:43:45,400 --> 04:43:48,800
tight-knit, Village communities 
where witch accusations had 

5112
04:43:48,800 --> 04:43:52,900
flourished as people moved to 
cities as markets expanded and 

5113
04:43:52,900 --> 04:43:55,900
as individuals became less 
dependent on immediate neighbors

5114
04:43:55,900 --> 04:43:58,700
for survival. 
The social conditions that had 

5115
04:43:58,700 --> 04:44:01,400
made which accusations useful 
for managing interpersonal, 

5116
04:44:01,400 --> 04:44:06,100
conflict began to dissolve The 
last execution for witchcraft in

5117
04:44:06,100 --> 04:44:09,900
England occurred in 1684, 
Scotland's last execution was in

5118
04:44:09,900 --> 04:44:14,500
1727 in France. 
The last execution was in 1745 

5119
04:44:14,500 --> 04:44:19,100
the Holy Roman Empire ended 
witch trials in 1775 these 

5120
04:44:19,100 --> 04:44:20,900
dates. 
Mark not sudden Transformations,

5121
04:44:20,900 --> 04:44:24,400
but gradual recognition that 
which prosecution's no longer 

5122
04:44:24,400 --> 04:44:27,800
made sense within changing legal
intellectual and social 

5123
04:44:27,800 --> 04:44:31,100
Frameworks. 
Poland's last witch, trial 

5124
04:44:31,100 --> 04:44:35,500
occurred in 1793 notably late 
compared to Western Europe. 

5125
04:44:35,500 --> 04:44:38,800
This timing reminds us that 
change happened, unevenly across

5126
04:44:38,800 --> 04:44:41,800
the continent, reflecting 
different social, and political 

5127
04:44:41,808 --> 04:44:44,900
conditions remote, or 
conservative regions maintained 

5128
04:44:44,900 --> 04:44:48,200
beliefs that Urban centers had 
abandoned, but the legal end of 

5129
04:44:48,200 --> 04:44:51,500
which trials didn't mean the end
of which craft believe folk 

5130
04:44:51,500 --> 04:44:54,200
beliefs about magical harm, 
protective charms, and 

5131
04:44:54,200 --> 04:44:56,600
Supernatural. 
Causation, persisted in rural 

5132
04:44:56,600 --> 04:44:58,300
areas. 
Well, into the 20th century 

5133
04:44:58,300 --> 04:45:01,000
people stopped bringing 
witchcraft accusations to 

5134
04:45:01,000 --> 04:45:03,700
courts, but they didn't 
necessarily stop believing that 

5135
04:45:03,700 --> 04:45:05,300
some neighbors had Dangerous 
Powers. 

5136
04:45:05,300 --> 04:45:08,500
The change was partly about 
belief, but more about what kind

5137
04:45:08,500 --> 04:45:11,200
of claims the legal system was 
willing to take seriously. 

5138
04:45:12,200 --> 04:45:15,700
In some communities informal, 
persecution continued. 

5139
04:45:15,700 --> 04:45:19,000
Even after formal trials, ended,
someone suspected of Witchcraft 

5140
04:45:19,000 --> 04:45:22,200
might face social ostracism 
property damage or violence 

5141
04:45:22,200 --> 04:45:25,600
without any legal proceedings. 
These extra legal actions were 

5142
04:45:25,600 --> 04:45:27,300
harder to track than official 
trials. 

5143
04:45:27,300 --> 04:45:30,700
But they represent continuity 
and belief even as legal 

5144
04:45:30,700 --> 04:45:34,800
structures changed. 
The Witchcraft Act of 1735 in 

5145
04:45:34,800 --> 04:45:37,400
Great, Britain marked a 
significant shift in official 

5146
04:45:37,400 --> 04:45:39,700
attitudes. 
This law repealed previous 

5147
04:45:39,700 --> 04:45:42,600
witchcraft statutes not because 
it accepted that witchcraft was 

5148
04:45:42,600 --> 04:45:44,500
real. 
But because it made pretending 

5149
04:45:44,500 --> 04:45:47,200
to practice witchcraft or 
accusing others of it into a 

5150
04:45:47,200 --> 04:45:49,300
crime. 
The law essentially said, 

5151
04:45:49,300 --> 04:45:53,500
witchcraft doesn't exist and 
claiming it does is either fraud

5152
04:45:53,500 --> 04:45:56,100
or slander. 
This represented a complete 

5153
04:45:56,100 --> 04:45:59,100
reversal of earlier legal 
Frameworks that had treated 

5154
04:45:59,100 --> 04:46:01,700
which craft as a real crime, 
requiring prosecution. 

5155
04:46:02,600 --> 04:46:06,700
Yet even as educated opinion, 
turned against which trials folk

5156
04:46:06,700 --> 04:46:09,900
practices related to protection 
from which craft persisted 

5157
04:46:09,900 --> 04:46:13,100
people can continue to use 
horseshoes, overdoors to bury 

5158
04:46:13,100 --> 04:46:16,000
objects and thresholds. 
And to employ counter magic 

5159
04:46:16,000 --> 04:46:19,200
against the suspected harm, the 
formal legal operators of which 

5160
04:46:19,200 --> 04:46:22,400
hunting disappeared. 
But the underlying anxiety of 

5161
04:46:22,400 --> 04:46:24,500
about malevolent magic took 
longer to fade. 

5162
04:46:25,200 --> 04:46:28,700
What finally killed which 
hunting wasn't necessarily that 

5163
04:46:28,700 --> 04:46:31,400
people stopped believing in 
Magic that they stopped 

5164
04:46:31,400 --> 04:46:34,500
believing the legal system 
should be involved in policing 

5165
04:46:34,500 --> 04:46:37,800
it private beliefs about 
supernatural harm, assisted even

5166
04:46:37,800 --> 04:46:41,000
as public institutions, refused 
to prosecute based on those 

5167
04:46:41,000 --> 04:46:44,400
beliefs this separation between 
personal belief and official 

5168
04:46:44,400 --> 04:46:48,700
action represents a significant 
evolution in how modern society 

5169
04:46:48,700 --> 04:46:53,000
is handle religious and 
Supernatural claims, the memory 

5170
04:46:53,000 --> 04:46:55,400
of the witch hunts, did 
important cultural work in the 

5171
04:46:55,408 --> 04:46:58,300
centuries that followed for 
Enlightenment thinkers which 

5172
04:46:58,300 --> 04:47:01,900
trials became an example of what
happens when Superstition and 

5173
04:47:01,900 --> 04:47:05,500
religious enthusiasm override 
reason for later generations, 

5174
04:47:05,500 --> 04:47:09,300
which hunt served as a warning 
about mob psychology about the 

5175
04:47:09,300 --> 04:47:13,200
dangers of accusations that are 
impossible to disprove and about

5176
04:47:13,200 --> 04:47:17,000
how Fear Can Transform neighbors
into executioners As you pull 

5177
04:47:17,000 --> 04:47:21,400
your blanket Tighter and perhaps
refill your tea, consider that 

5178
04:47:21,400 --> 04:47:24,900
the witch trials distant, as 
they seem have left marks on our

5179
04:47:24,900 --> 04:47:28,000
world, that remain visible. 
If you know where to look, The 

5180
04:47:28,000 --> 04:47:30,500
English language preserves 
traces of this history and 

5181
04:47:30,500 --> 04:47:32,100
phrases. 
We use without thinking about 

5182
04:47:32,100 --> 04:47:36,000
their Origins which hunt has 
become a standard metaphor for 

5183
04:47:36,008 --> 04:47:39,300
baseless persecution. 
Used by everyone from corporate 

5184
04:47:39,300 --> 04:47:42,800
Executives defending against 
accusations to politicians 

5185
04:47:42,800 --> 04:47:45,500
claiming unfair treatment, the 
phrase captures something 

5186
04:47:45,500 --> 04:47:48,500
essential about the dynamic 
accusations. 

5187
04:47:48,500 --> 04:47:51,000
That build on themselves were 
defending yourself. 

5188
04:47:51,000 --> 04:47:54,200
Only makes you look more guilty 
and where the process itself 

5189
04:47:54,200 --> 04:47:58,000
becomes punishment. 
Modern legal protections against

5190
04:47:58,000 --> 04:48:01,400
certain types of prosecution 
developed partly in reaction, to

5191
04:48:01,400 --> 04:48:04,700
the witch trials, the principle 
that accusation alone isn't 

5192
04:48:04,700 --> 04:48:06,500
evidence. 
The right to confront your 

5193
04:48:06,500 --> 04:48:10,100
accusers, the requirement for 
physical proof of crime, and 

5194
04:48:10,100 --> 04:48:11,500
protections against 
self-incrimination. 

5195
04:48:11,500 --> 04:48:15,600
These evolved partly from 
recognition of how easily, which

5196
04:48:15,600 --> 04:48:18,300
trial Dynamics could produce 
unjust conviction. 

5197
04:48:18,300 --> 04:48:22,400
When we say innocent until 
proven guilty, were embracing a 

5198
04:48:22,400 --> 04:48:25,200
standard that which trial 
spectacularly violated. 

5199
04:48:26,000 --> 04:48:28,700
The trials, also left their mark
on how we think about women's 

5200
04:48:28,700 --> 04:48:31,800
social power, the overwhelming 
majority of accused, which is 

5201
04:48:31,800 --> 04:48:34,900
where women and the accusations 
often centered on behaviors that

5202
04:48:34,900 --> 04:48:38,800
challenge to patriarchal Norms 
female Independence, female 

5203
04:48:38,800 --> 04:48:42,100
knowledge, female sexuality and 
female anger. 

5204
04:48:42,100 --> 04:48:45,300
The Witch Trials were among 
other things, a mechanism for 

5205
04:48:45,300 --> 04:48:47,500
police. 
In gender boundaries, the 

5206
04:48:47,500 --> 04:48:49,700
punishing women who didn't fit 
prescribed roles. 

5207
04:48:50,600 --> 04:48:53,300
This gendered aspect of which 
hunting has made the witch a 

5208
04:48:53,300 --> 04:48:54,900
powerful symbol in modern 
feminist. 

5209
04:48:54,900 --> 04:48:58,600
Thought the witch reimagined? 
Not as an evil figure, but as a 

5210
04:48:58,600 --> 04:49:01,500
woman who refused to conform and
who possess knowledge and power 

5211
04:49:01,500 --> 04:49:04,500
that threatened established 
structures, has become an icon 

5212
04:49:04,500 --> 04:49:07,400
of resistance Halloween 
decorations, featuring witches 

5213
04:49:07,400 --> 04:49:10,100
on broomsticks, carry Echoes of 
centuries of persecution 

5214
04:49:10,100 --> 04:49:14,000
transformed in to something 
playful, but retaining a shadow 

5215
04:49:14,000 --> 04:49:18,500
of their darker Origins. 
In Salem the trials, have become

5216
04:49:18,500 --> 04:49:20,700
Central to the town's identity, 
and ways. 

5217
04:49:20,700 --> 04:49:24,500
Both thoughtful and Commercial 
museums and Memorial sites. 

5218
04:49:24,500 --> 04:49:26,800
Preserve the history while 
tourism capitalizes on it. 

5219
04:49:27,600 --> 04:49:30,500
Walking through Modern Salem, 
you pass witchcraft shop, 

5220
04:49:30,500 --> 04:49:33,900
selling crystals and Tarot cards
next to historical markers 

5221
04:49:33,900 --> 04:49:37,400
explaining that actual 
witchcraft never occurred the 

5222
04:49:37,400 --> 04:49:39,900
town wrestles with how to honor 
victims while acknowledging. 

5223
04:49:39,900 --> 04:49:43,400
That its most, famous historical
episode was on delusion and 

5224
04:49:43,400 --> 04:49:48,500
Injustice, Arthur Miller's, 
1953, play The Crucible used 

5225
04:49:48,500 --> 04:49:51,200
Salem as an allegory for 
McCarthy and anti-communist 

5226
04:49:51,200 --> 04:49:54,300
investigations demonstrating, 
how witch trial Dynamics could 

5227
04:49:54,300 --> 04:49:57,700
recur in modern contexts Miller 
recognized that the essential 

5228
04:49:57,700 --> 04:50:00,500
pattern accusations that are 
hard to disprove. 

5229
04:50:00,500 --> 04:50:03,900
Social pressure to name, 
accomplices, and personal, and 

5230
04:50:03,900 --> 04:50:08,100
political motivations to 
ideological Purity, wasn't 

5231
04:50:08,100 --> 04:50:11,500
limited to the 17th century. 
The play ensured that Salem 

5232
04:50:11,500 --> 04:50:13,800
would remain in cultural memory,
not just as a historical 

5233
04:50:13,800 --> 04:50:18,300
curiosity, but as a cautionary 
Tale Modern accusations of 

5234
04:50:18,300 --> 04:50:21,600
Witchcraft, still occur in some 
parts of the world, particularly

5235
04:50:21,600 --> 04:50:25,000
in regions, where traditional 
beliefs remain strong and legal 

5236
04:50:25,000 --> 04:50:28,000
systems are weak, in some 
African and Asian communities, 

5237
04:50:28,000 --> 04:50:31,600
which craft accusations can lead
to violence, Exile or death. 

5238
04:50:31,600 --> 04:50:35,200
These contemporary witch hunts. 
Follow patterns eerily similar 

5239
04:50:35,200 --> 04:50:38,900
to European and American 
historical trials, accusations 

5240
04:50:38,900 --> 04:50:42,400
against vulnerable individuals, 
confessions extracted through 

5241
04:50:42,400 --> 04:50:44,600
pressure or violence and 
community. 

5242
04:50:44,600 --> 04:50:48,500
Scapegoating of marginal people 
international human rights 

5243
04:50:48,500 --> 04:50:50,600
organizations. 
Now, track and worked to prevent

5244
04:50:50,600 --> 04:50:53,900
which accusations in these 
regions, recognizing that the 

5245
04:50:53,900 --> 04:50:55,800
Dynamics that produce the 
European witch. 

5246
04:50:55,800 --> 04:50:58,600
Hunts have not disappeared. 
They've just moved to different 

5247
04:50:58,600 --> 04:51:01,400
cultural. 
Contexts the underlying human 

5248
04:51:01,400 --> 04:51:03,400
tendencies that made 
witch-hunting possible. 

5249
04:51:03,400 --> 04:51:06,400
The need to explain Misfortune 
the usefulness of skate. 

5250
04:51:06,400 --> 04:51:09,800
Goats the power of accusations 
that are difficult to disprove 

5251
04:51:09,800 --> 04:51:13,000
remain present in human 
communities everywhere. 

5252
04:51:13,000 --> 04:51:16,300
Psychology has provided 
Frameworks for understanding 

5253
04:51:16,300 --> 04:51:18,600
what happened. 
During historical Witch Trials, 

5254
04:51:18,600 --> 04:51:23,300
massive stereo conversion 
disorder confirmation bias, the 

5255
04:51:23,300 --> 04:51:26,400
psychology of torture and 
confession and group dynamics. 

5256
04:51:26,400 --> 04:51:30,000
In small communities, these 
Concepts help explain how 

5257
04:51:30,000 --> 04:51:33,400
intelligent decent people could 
participate in or support, which

5258
04:51:33,400 --> 04:51:36,400
prosecution's understanding 
these mechanisms doesn't make 

5259
04:51:36,400 --> 04:51:38,900
the history less troubling, but 
it does make it more 

5260
04:51:38,900 --> 04:51:41,700
comprehensible as something that
emerge from ordinary human 

5261
04:51:41,700 --> 04:51:44,400
psychology, under particular, 
social conditions. 

5262
04:51:46,100 --> 04:51:49,700
The Witch Trials, also, offer 
insights into how societies 

5263
04:51:49,700 --> 04:51:52,800
handled invisible threats. 
Whether the threat is witchcraft

5264
04:51:52,800 --> 04:51:56,600
communism, terrorism or viral 
contagion communities face 

5265
04:51:56,600 --> 04:51:59,600
similar challenges how to 
respond to genuine danger 

5266
04:51:59,600 --> 04:52:02,600
without succumbing to panic how 
to protect the vulnerable while 

5267
04:52:02,600 --> 04:52:06,500
maintaining security and how to 
distinguish between reasonable 

5268
04:52:06,500 --> 04:52:09,600
precaution and destructive. 
Paranoia, The Witch Trials 

5269
04:52:09,600 --> 04:52:11,900
represent an extreme case of 
getting this balance 

5270
04:52:11,900 --> 04:52:15,300
catastrophically wrong. 
Descendants of accused witches 

5271
04:52:15,300 --> 04:52:19,100
of work to clear their ancestors
names, often facing bureaucratic

5272
04:52:19,100 --> 04:52:23,100
obstacles, centuries after the 
original accusations in 2001, 

5273
04:52:23,100 --> 04:52:26,400
Massachusetts formerly, 
exonerated five, women executed 

5274
04:52:26,400 --> 04:52:29,900
during the Salem trials, who had
never received official pardons 

5275
04:52:30,600 --> 04:52:34,000
In 2022, the last of the Salem 
witches, received exoneration 

5276
04:52:34,000 --> 04:52:38,400
330 years after her execution. 
These late acknowledgments, 

5277
04:52:38,400 --> 04:52:41,600
can't undo historical harm but 
they represent official 

5278
04:52:41,600 --> 04:52:43,500
recognition that Injustice 
occurred. 

5279
04:52:44,400 --> 04:52:47,500
The wiccan religious movement, 
which emerged in the mid-20th 

5280
04:52:47,500 --> 04:52:51,200
century, reclaimed the word 
witch, as a positive identity, 

5281
04:52:51,200 --> 04:52:54,000
creating a contemporary 
witchcraft practice, that has 

5282
04:52:54,000 --> 04:52:57,500
nothing to do with demonic packs
or malevolent magic modern 

5283
04:52:57,500 --> 04:52:59,300
wiccans, practice. 
What they describe as 

5284
04:52:59,308 --> 04:53:04,300
nature-based spirituality often 
emphasizing healing Harmony and 

5285
04:53:04,300 --> 04:53:07,700
connection to seasonal Cycles. 
Whether there's any historical 

5286
04:53:07,700 --> 04:53:10,800
connection between contemporary 
wicker and the practices of 

5287
04:53:10,800 --> 04:53:13,900
people accused during which 
trials is debatable, but the 

5288
04:53:13,900 --> 04:53:16,400
Reclamation of the term 
represents a fascinating 

5289
04:53:16,400 --> 04:53:19,900
cultural transformation. 
Academia continues studying, 

5290
04:53:19,900 --> 04:53:23,900
which trials from multiple 
angles, social history examining

5291
04:53:23,900 --> 04:53:27,000
Community, Dynamics gender. 
Studies analyzing the 

5292
04:53:27,000 --> 04:53:30,100
persecution of women, legal 
history, tracking changes in 

5293
04:53:30,100 --> 04:53:33,600
evidentiary standards religious 
history, exploring theological 

5294
04:53:33,600 --> 04:53:37,100
developments and medical history
investigating possible 

5295
04:53:37,100 --> 04:53:39,800
explanations for symptoms 
attributed to bewitchment. 

5296
04:53:39,800 --> 04:53:43,000
Each discipline finds different 
aspects of the witch trials, 

5297
04:53:43,000 --> 04:53:46,300
relevant to its concern. 
Suggesting that these events 

5298
04:53:46,300 --> 04:53:49,300
touched on fundamental aspects 
of Human Social organization. 

5299
04:53:50,100 --> 04:53:53,600
The total number of people 
executed during the European and

5300
04:53:53,600 --> 04:53:56,400
American Witch Trials is 
difficult to determine precisely

5301
04:53:56,400 --> 04:54:00,900
estimates range from 40,000 to 
100,000 over roughly three 

5302
04:54:00,900 --> 04:54:04,700
Centuries with perhaps another 
100,000 to 200,000 formally 

5303
04:54:04,700 --> 04:54:08,400
accused but not executed, these 
numbers are horrifying but also 

5304
04:54:08,400 --> 04:54:12,400
important to keep in perspective
which hunting was terrible but 

5305
04:54:12,400 --> 04:54:16,000
it wasn't the largest source of 
mortality in this period wore 

5306
04:54:16,000 --> 04:54:19,700
disease famine and ordinary 
crime killed far more people. 

5307
04:54:19,700 --> 04:54:22,400
The Witch Trials matter. 
Not because of their scale 

5308
04:54:22,400 --> 04:54:25,400
relative to other tragedies but 
because of what they reveal 

5309
04:54:25,400 --> 04:54:27,800
about, how communities can turn 
on their own members. 

5310
04:54:28,800 --> 04:54:31,600
Regional variations in which 
hunting intense tea remain 

5311
04:54:31,600 --> 04:54:35,000
puzzling to historians. 
Why did some areas execute 

5312
04:54:35,000 --> 04:54:37,800
thousands while neighboring 
regions executed almost none? 

5313
04:54:37,800 --> 04:54:40,700
Why did witch-hunting Peak at 
different times in different 

5314
04:54:40,700 --> 04:54:42,900
places. 
These questions don't have 

5315
04:54:42,900 --> 04:54:46,700
simple answers, local political 
situations, religious tensions, 

5316
04:54:46,700 --> 04:54:50,100
economic stress, individual 
authorities, attitudes, and the 

5317
04:54:50,100 --> 04:54:52,000
presence or absence of skeptical
voices. 

5318
04:54:52,000 --> 04:54:55,500
All these factors interacted in 
complex ways that produced 

5319
04:54:55,500 --> 04:54:58,500
dramatically different outcomes 
in seemingly similar 

5320
04:54:58,500 --> 04:55:02,100
communities, The Witch Trials, 
also demonstrate how quickly 

5321
04:55:02,100 --> 04:55:05,000
social norms can shift 
communities, that executed, 

5322
04:55:05,000 --> 04:55:07,500
which is one year sometimes. 
Reversed course, the next 

5323
04:55:07,500 --> 04:55:10,200
releasing prisoners and 
questioning what they had done. 

5324
04:55:10,200 --> 04:55:13,600
This rapid change suggests that,
which hunting wasn't, an 

5325
04:55:13,600 --> 04:55:17,100
inevitable expression of period,
belief systems, but rather a 

5326
04:55:17,100 --> 04:55:20,200
particular Dynamic that required
specific conditions to sustain 

5327
04:55:20,200 --> 04:55:22,700
itself. 
When those conditions changed 

5328
04:55:22,700 --> 04:55:26,400
when authorities, withdrew, 
support when skeptical voices 

5329
04:55:26,400 --> 04:55:29,200
gained influence, when 
communities exhausted 

5330
04:55:29,200 --> 04:55:32,100
themselves, the prosecution 
could end quickly. 

5331
04:55:33,200 --> 04:55:36,900
Outside your window, the night 
continues, its ancient routine, 

5332
04:55:36,900 --> 04:55:39,300
indifferent to human fears and 
accusations. 

5333
04:55:39,300 --> 04:55:42,600
The darkness that once held 
demons and witches now holds 

5334
04:55:42,600 --> 04:55:45,300
only the ordinary mysteries of 
sleeping cities and distant 

5335
04:55:45,300 --> 04:55:50,100
Stars, The history of witches 
is, ultimately a history of how 

5336
04:55:50,100 --> 04:55:53,400
people understand evil and 
suffering, bad things happen, 

5337
04:55:53,400 --> 04:55:54,400
and bad. 
Things happened. 

5338
04:55:54,400 --> 04:55:57,200
Constantly in the pre-modern 
world, people needed 

5339
04:55:57,200 --> 04:55:58,900
explanations. 
The witch. 

5340
04:55:58,900 --> 04:56:01,600
Provided an answer that was 
simultaneously, comforting and 

5341
04:56:01,600 --> 04:56:06,300
terrifying suffering had a cause
that cause was identifiable and 

5342
04:56:06,300 --> 04:56:08,300
eliminating the cause could 
restore safety. 

5343
04:56:09,300 --> 04:56:12,000
But this explanation required 
believing that some of your 

5344
04:56:12,000 --> 04:56:15,500
neighbors were secretly working 
to harm you that Ordinary People

5345
04:56:15,500 --> 04:56:18,100
could make packs with 
Supernatural evil and that the 

5346
04:56:18,100 --> 04:56:20,900
appearance of normalcy could 
hide malevolent intent. 

5347
04:56:20,900 --> 04:56:23,600
Once you accepted these 
premises, the logic of 

5348
04:56:23,608 --> 04:56:27,400
witch-hunting followed almost 
inevitably if witches exist and 

5349
04:56:27,400 --> 04:56:30,600
can harm you failing to identify
and eliminate them becomes its 

5350
04:56:30,600 --> 04:56:33,400
own form of guilt. 
What we've lost in losing 

5351
04:56:33,400 --> 04:56:35,400
belief, in which is as real 
Supernatural. 

5352
04:56:35,400 --> 04:56:38,900
Threats is perhaps a certain 
sense that the universe is 

5353
04:56:38,900 --> 04:56:42,700
morally ordered in simple ways, 
that bad things happen because 

5354
04:56:42,700 --> 04:56:45,900
bad people cause them and that 
eliminating bad people can 

5355
04:56:45,900 --> 04:56:48,800
eliminate bad outcomes. 
What we've gained is the more 

5356
04:56:48,800 --> 04:56:51,200
difficult, but more accurate 
understanding that suffering 

5357
04:56:51,200 --> 04:56:54,700
often has no villain. 
At random chance and impersonal 

5358
04:56:54,700 --> 04:56:57,500
forces shape, Our Lives as much 
as human agency. 

5359
04:56:57,500 --> 04:57:00,700
And that sometimes there's no 
one to blame when tragedy 

5360
04:57:00,700 --> 04:57:04,200
strikes. 
The people who participated in 

5361
04:57:04,200 --> 04:57:08,200
Witch Trials, accusers, 
Witnesses judges executioners 

5362
04:57:08,200 --> 04:57:11,100
were not for the most part, 
cruel or unusual. 

5363
04:57:11,100 --> 04:57:14,000
They were Ordinary People 
operating within belief systems 

5364
04:57:14,000 --> 04:57:17,000
that made sense in their 
cultural context, responding to 

5365
04:57:17,000 --> 04:57:20,000
genuine fears with methods that 
their society endorsed. 

5366
04:57:20,000 --> 04:57:24,500
This is both comforting and 
disturbing comforting because it

5367
04:57:24,500 --> 04:57:27,400
means which hunting wasn't the 
result of individual evil, but 

5368
04:57:27,400 --> 04:57:30,100
of systemic failures of 
reasoning and institutional 

5369
04:57:30,100 --> 04:57:33,300
checks disturbing because it 
suggests that Ordinary People, 

5370
04:57:33,300 --> 04:57:35,800
People Like Us can participate 
in terrible things. 

5371
04:57:35,800 --> 04:57:39,900
When the right conditions, align
Modern individuals reading about

5372
04:57:39,900 --> 04:57:42,500
which trials, often wonder would
I have gone along. 

5373
04:57:42,500 --> 04:57:45,500
Would I have accused my 
neighbor's testified against 

5374
04:57:45,500 --> 04:57:47,300
them or stood in the crowd 
watching? 

5375
04:57:47,300 --> 04:57:50,100
Executions? 
The uncomfortable truth is that 

5376
04:57:50,100 --> 04:57:53,300
most of us probably would have 
not because we're bad people, 

5377
04:57:53,300 --> 04:57:56,600
but because social pressure 
cultural assumptions and the 

5378
04:57:56,608 --> 04:57:59,400
architecture of our beliefs 
shape behavior in ways that are 

5379
04:57:59,400 --> 04:58:01,000
very difficult to resist 
individually. 

5380
04:58:01,900 --> 04:58:04,200
The heroes of which trial 
history are often those? 

5381
04:58:04,200 --> 04:58:07,500
Who said, no, when everyone 
around them was saying, yes, the

5382
04:58:07,500 --> 04:58:11,500
judges who refused to convict 
despite Community pressure. the 

5383
04:58:11,500 --> 04:58:14,700
neighbors who testified in favor
of accused witches despite the 

5384
04:58:14,700 --> 04:58:18,300
risk to their own reputation, 
the ministers, questioned 

5385
04:58:18,300 --> 04:58:21,400
whether spectral evidence should
be trusted these individuals 

5386
04:58:21,400 --> 04:58:24,900
demonstrated that resistance was
possible that going along wasn't

5387
04:58:24,900 --> 04:58:28,400
inevitable and the individual 
Choice retained meaning even 

5388
04:58:28,400 --> 04:58:32,300
within oppressive systems. 
That celebrating these resistors

5389
04:58:32,300 --> 04:58:35,600
shouldn't let the rest of us off
the hook too easily, for every 

5390
04:58:35,600 --> 04:58:39,200
person who resisted hundreds 
participated or stood silently 

5391
04:58:39,200 --> 04:58:42,700
by the witch trials happened. 
Not because a few evil people 

5392
04:58:42,700 --> 04:58:45,500
forced them on reluctant 
communities, but because 

5393
04:58:45,500 --> 04:58:48,700
communities largely supported 
them, saw them as necessary. 

5394
04:58:48,700 --> 04:58:52,100
And participated willingly, any 
honest Reckoning with this 

5395
04:58:52,100 --> 04:58:54,800
history requires acknowledging. 
That most people, most of the 

5396
04:58:54,800 --> 04:58:58,200
time go along with what their 
society tells them is right and 

5397
04:58:58,200 --> 04:59:01,800
necessary. 
The lesson isn't that we should 

5398
04:59:01,800 --> 04:59:05,700
feel guilty for what our 
ancestors did Collective guilt 

5399
04:59:05,700 --> 04:59:07,300
across. 
Centuries makes no sense. 

5400
04:59:07,300 --> 04:59:11,100
The lesson is that we should 
examine our own certainties, our

5401
04:59:11,100 --> 04:59:14,600
own communities scapegoats and 
our own participation in systems

5402
04:59:14,600 --> 04:59:16,300
that might look unjust to Future
Generations. 

5403
04:59:16,300 --> 04:59:19,300
What beliefs do we hold? 
Now that will seem as obviously 

5404
04:59:19,300 --> 04:59:22,000
wrong in 300 years, as 
witch-hunting seems to us. 

5405
04:59:22,900 --> 04:59:25,800
The Witch Trials teach us to be 
suspicious of accusations that 

5406
04:59:25,800 --> 04:59:29,500
are impossible to disprove of 
evidence that consists mainly of

5407
04:59:29,500 --> 04:59:34,000
reputation and rumor of legal 
systems that treat confession as

5408
04:59:34,000 --> 04:59:37,700
the only path to Mercy and of 
communities that need enemies to

5409
04:59:37,700 --> 04:59:40,600
maintain cohesion. 
They teach us that fear is a 

5410
04:59:40,600 --> 04:59:44,300
terrible foundation for justice,
that Panic makes people capable 

5411
04:59:44,300 --> 04:59:45,800
of Cruelty, they'd normally 
reject. 

5412
04:59:45,800 --> 04:59:49,000
And that the difference between 
civilization and barbarism is 

5413
04:59:49,000 --> 04:59:50,300
thinner than we'd like to 
believe. 

5414
04:59:50,300 --> 04:59:53,900
They also teach us something 
about the endurance of human 

5415
04:59:53,900 --> 04:59:56,200
communities. 
Despite terrible, mistakes 

5416
04:59:56,200 --> 05:00:00,400
Salem, didn't disappear, after 
1692 vogtsburg recovered from 

5417
05:00:00,400 --> 05:00:02,000
its trials. 
Community. 

5418
05:00:02,000 --> 05:00:04,800
That burned witches went on to 
become peaceful towns where 

5419
05:00:04,800 --> 05:00:08,200
people lived ordinary lives. 
Raised children, tended 

5420
05:00:08,200 --> 05:00:10,700
Guardians, and mostly forgot 
what their ancestors are done. 

5421
05:00:10,700 --> 05:00:14,600
Humans are remarkably good at 
moving on at forgetting at 

5422
05:00:14,600 --> 05:00:17,300
rebuilding normal life, after 
extraordinary cruelty. 

5423
05:00:18,100 --> 05:00:21,000
Whether this resilience is 
admirable or troubling, depends 

5424
05:00:21,000 --> 05:00:23,800
on your perspective, it's 
admirable that communities can 

5425
05:00:23,800 --> 05:00:26,800
recover from Collective Madness.
It's troubling that they can do 

5426
05:00:26,800 --> 05:00:29,800
well enough, that the lessons 
might not be learned. that 

5427
05:00:29,800 --> 05:00:32,900
future Generations, might be 
susceptible to similar Dynamics,

5428
05:00:32,900 --> 05:00:37,200
because the memory has faded the
physical traces of which trials 

5429
05:00:37,200 --> 05:00:41,100
are mostly gone, a few memorial 
stones, some preserve documents 

5430
05:00:41,100 --> 05:00:45,700
and historical markers in places
where executions occurred The 

5431
05:00:45,700 --> 05:00:46,500
dead left. 
No. 

5432
05:00:46,500 --> 05:00:49,400
Graves to visit their body's 
having been burned or buried 

5433
05:00:49,400 --> 05:00:52,000
with out ceremony. 
In many cases, the absence of 

5434
05:00:52,000 --> 05:00:55,400
physical memorials, make the 
history feel more distant easier

5435
05:00:55,400 --> 05:00:58,000
to dismiss as something that 
happened long ago and couldn't 

5436
05:00:58,000 --> 05:01:00,300
happen. 
Now, That the absence of 

5437
05:01:00,300 --> 05:01:03,600
memorials, all means we carry 
this history in turn early as a 

5438
05:01:03,600 --> 05:01:05,800
story. 
We tell about human nature and 

5439
05:01:05,800 --> 05:01:08,400
social dynamics rather than as a
specific place. 

5440
05:01:08,400 --> 05:01:11,400
We can visit and leave behind 
the witch trials, exist. 

5441
05:01:11,400 --> 05:01:15,200
Now, primarily as a cautionary 
tale as a metaphor as a warning 

5442
05:01:15,200 --> 05:01:19,000
and perhaps that's the form in 
which their most useful, as you 

5443
05:01:19,000 --> 05:01:22,000
prepare for Sleep, consider that
the same darkness that once held

5444
05:01:22,000 --> 05:01:25,300
such Terror for our ancestors. 
Now, holds a kind of Peace. 

5445
05:01:25,300 --> 05:01:28,700
The night is no longer populated
with demons and malevolent 

5446
05:01:28,700 --> 05:01:31,100
spirits. 
Shadows in the corner of your 

5447
05:01:31,100 --> 05:01:33,300
room are just Shadows. 
The creaking of the house is 

5448
05:01:33,300 --> 05:01:35,700
just would settling. 
And the neighbor who seems 

5449
05:01:35,700 --> 05:01:37,900
strange is just someone with 
different habits and 

5450
05:01:37,900 --> 05:01:40,800
preferences. 
This demystification of the 

5451
05:01:40,800 --> 05:01:44,800
night, this Taming of Darkness, 
through understanding represents

5452
05:01:44,800 --> 05:01:46,700
one of modernities genuine 
gifts. 

5453
05:01:46,700 --> 05:01:49,800
We've lost the enchanted 
Universe where magic was real 

5454
05:01:49,800 --> 05:01:53,600
and Spirits walked among us but 
we've gained a world where 

5455
05:01:53,600 --> 05:01:56,600
random Misfortune doesn't 
require malevolent explanation 

5456
05:01:56,600 --> 05:01:59,100
where your neighbor's 
eccentricity doesn't make them 

5457
05:01:59,100 --> 05:02:02,500
dangerous and where different 
doesn't equal threat. 

5458
05:02:03,200 --> 05:02:06,100
The last person executed, for 
witchcraft died, centuries ago, 

5459
05:02:06,100 --> 05:02:09,400
the last official witch trial 
ended long before anyone now 

5460
05:02:09,400 --> 05:02:13,100
living was born, the Machinery 
of persecution that operated for

5461
05:02:13,100 --> 05:02:17,300
so long has been dismantled its 
methods discredited and its 

5462
05:02:17,300 --> 05:02:20,200
assumptions rejected. 
This is progress worth 

5463
05:02:20,200 --> 05:02:22,800
acknowledging. 
Even as we remain alert to how 

5464
05:02:22,800 --> 05:02:25,400
similar Dynamics, might manifest
in different forms. 

5465
05:02:26,300 --> 05:02:29,600
Tonight, as you drift towards 
sleep, you can do so without 

5466
05:02:29,600 --> 05:02:32,700
fear that someone might accuse 
you of impossible crimes that 

5467
05:02:32,700 --> 05:02:37,000
your midnight dreams might be 
used as evidence against you, or

5468
05:02:37,000 --> 05:02:39,100
that your spirit might be 
claimed to have left your 

5469
05:02:39,100 --> 05:02:42,000
sleeping body, to harm your 
neighbors, these fears, which 

5470
05:02:42,000 --> 05:02:45,300
once seemed perfectly reasonable
to millions of people have been 

5471
05:02:45,308 --> 05:02:48,500
consigned to history, but 
history is never as distant as 

5472
05:02:48,500 --> 05:02:52,300
we imagine the human tendencies.
That produced Witch Trials, the 

5473
05:02:52,300 --> 05:02:55,200
need to explain suffering the 
comfort of identifying enemies. 

5474
05:02:55,200 --> 05:02:59,200
The power of accusations, the 
danger of certainty remain with 

5475
05:02:59,200 --> 05:03:03,300
us, the forms change, but the 
patterns persist appearing in 

5476
05:03:03,300 --> 05:03:06,000
different contexts with 
different vocabularies, but 

5477
05:03:06,000 --> 05:03:09,500
recognizable structures. 
The Witch Trials, remind us that

5478
05:03:09,500 --> 05:03:12,500
Civilization is an achievement. 
Requiring constant maintenance 

5479
05:03:12,500 --> 05:03:16,900
that Justice is fragile and that
Mercy must be chosen again. 

5480
05:03:16,900 --> 05:03:20,200
And again, they remind us to be 
skeptical of our own certain to 

5481
05:03:20,200 --> 05:03:23,900
compassionate towards those 
accused careful about how we 

5482
05:03:23,900 --> 05:03:27,400
explain this fortune and humble.
About how much we truly know. 

5483
05:03:28,200 --> 05:03:31,200
they remind us that the 
individuals matter the choices 

5484
05:03:31,200 --> 05:03:34,500
matter and that resistance as 
possible, even when it's 

5485
05:03:34,500 --> 05:03:38,000
difficult, the people who spoke 
up for accused witches, who 

5486
05:03:38,000 --> 05:03:40,900
questioned the proceedings who 
refused to participate in 

5487
05:03:40,900 --> 05:03:44,800
persecution despite pressure 
these individuals demonstrated 

5488
05:03:44,800 --> 05:03:48,100
that we're not helpless before 
social forces that moral courage

5489
05:03:48,100 --> 05:03:52,000
remains meaningful, even when 
it's uncommon, As your eyes grow

5490
05:03:52,000 --> 05:03:54,700
heavy in the room, around you, 
softens into the gentle blur of 

5491
05:03:54,700 --> 05:03:57,300
approaching sleep. 
You might spare a thought for 

5492
05:03:57,300 --> 05:04:00,800
all those accused of impossible,
things for communities torn, 

5493
05:04:00,800 --> 05:04:03,600
apart by fear. 
And for the slow, uneven 

5494
05:04:03,600 --> 05:04:06,200
progress toward more just and 
rational ways of handling 

5495
05:04:06,200 --> 05:04:10,500
Misfortune and different. 
The story of witches from belief

5496
05:04:10,500 --> 05:04:13,300
through persecution to the 
fading of the trials is 

5497
05:04:13,300 --> 05:04:16,600
ultimately a story about 
learning Humanity, learned 

5498
05:04:16,600 --> 05:04:19,500
slowly, and at terrible cost 
that Supernatural explanations 

5499
05:04:19,500 --> 05:04:22,800
for Misfortune were unnecessary.
The accusations required 

5500
05:04:22,800 --> 05:04:26,500
evidence, the difference, didn't
equal danger, and that Mercy was

5501
05:04:26,500 --> 05:04:30,100
stronger than fear. 
These lessons weren't learned 

5502
05:04:30,100 --> 05:04:33,300
perfectly or completely, they 
weren't learned everywhere 

5503
05:04:33,300 --> 05:04:36,300
simultaneously. 
They had to be learned again and

5504
05:04:36,300 --> 05:04:39,500
again sometimes forgotten and 
relearned but they were learning

5505
05:04:39,500 --> 05:04:42,400
and the world became in this 
respect. 

5506
05:04:42,400 --> 05:04:46,700
At least a gentler Place sleep. 
Now in your safe comfortable, 

5507
05:04:46,700 --> 05:04:50,800
bed in your room, that holds no 
demons in your community. 

5508
05:04:50,800 --> 05:04:54,700
That doesn't burn witches sleep,
knowing that the darkness 

5509
05:04:54,700 --> 05:04:58,000
outside your window is just the 
absence of light that your 

5510
05:04:58,000 --> 05:05:02,000
strange dreams are just your 
brain processing information and

5511
05:05:02,000 --> 05:05:04,600
that your difficult neighbor is 
just a person with different 

5512
05:05:04,600 --> 05:05:10,300
views and habits The Witch 
Trials are over their lessons 

5513
05:05:10,308 --> 05:05:14,000
remain and that combination the 
end of one horror the 

5514
05:05:14,000 --> 05:05:17,100
preservation of its lessons 
represents one of History's. 

5515
05:05:17,100 --> 05:05:19,900
Quiet victories. 
The kind that doesn't announce 

5516
05:05:19,900 --> 05:05:23,000
itself with trumpets and 
celebrations that simply makes 

5517
05:05:23,000 --> 05:05:25,400
ordinary life possible for 
Ordinary People. 

5518
05:05:25,400 --> 05:05:29,100
Tomorrow, you'll wake to a world
where witches exist, only in 

5519
05:05:29,100 --> 05:05:32,400
Halloween decorations and 
fantasy novels where history has

5520
05:05:32,400 --> 05:05:35,900
become story and where the fears
that once seemed so reasonable 

5521
05:05:35,900 --> 05:05:39,800
now, seem incomprehensible and 
that change from reasonable fear

5522
05:05:39,800 --> 05:05:43,600
to incomprehensible Superstition
represents, not just the passage

5523
05:05:43,600 --> 05:05:47,800
of time but the slow uneven 
precious growth of human 

5524
05:05:47,800 --> 05:05:49,700
understanding. 
Rest. 

5525
05:05:49,700 --> 05:05:52,600
Well, knowing that this 
particular Darkness has been 

5526
05:05:52,600 --> 05:05:56,100
illuminated that this particular
fear has been named and 

5527
05:05:56,100 --> 05:05:58,600
understood, and that this 
particular mistake is now 

5528
05:05:58,600 --> 05:06:02,100
preserved as a cautionary tale. 
Rather than repeated as a tragic

5529
05:06:02,100 --> 05:06:06,100
practice the night holds only 
night, the darkness holds only 

5530
05:06:06,100 --> 05:06:09,500
darkness and that in its own 
quiet way is something close to 

5531
05:06:09,500 --> 05:06:12,300
Grace sleep. 
Well, the witch trials are 

5532
05:06:12,300 --> 05:06:13,800
history and morning, always 
comes. 

5533
05:06:17,600 --> 05:06:21,400
Aaron Burr was born on February 
6th 1756 in Newark. 

5534
05:06:21,400 --> 05:06:25,000
New Jersey into a renowned 
family that promised a life full

5535
05:06:25,000 --> 05:06:28,100
of amazing chances. 
His maternal grandfather was 

5536
05:06:28,100 --> 05:06:31,100
Jonathan Edwards. 
A well-known Theologian and his 

5537
05:06:31,100 --> 05:06:33,500
father was the College of New 
Jersey's second president. 

5538
05:06:34,400 --> 05:06:37,500
When Burr was only two years 
old, both of his parents died. 

5539
05:06:37,500 --> 05:06:40,800
First his father, then his 
mother leaving him and his 

5540
05:06:40,800 --> 05:06:43,100
sister orphans and reared by 
fabulous relatives. 

5541
05:06:43,900 --> 05:06:46,600
Such sorrow at a young age, 
could have crushed a less Hardy 

5542
05:06:46,600 --> 05:06:50,300
personality, but it fostered 
burs Independence and desire to 

5543
05:06:50,300 --> 05:06:52,600
identify himself Beyond parental
expectations. 

5544
05:06:53,300 --> 05:06:55,800
Berth showed extraordinary 
intelligence in his early teens.

5545
05:06:55,800 --> 05:06:59,300
He enrolled at the College of 
New Jersey and demonstrated an 

5546
05:06:59,300 --> 05:07:01,300
interest in classical studies 
and debate. 

5547
05:07:02,000 --> 05:07:05,500
His peers described him as 
intense charismatic, yet a 

5548
05:07:05,500 --> 05:07:08,500
little distant, while many 
future Statesman focused solely 

5549
05:07:08,500 --> 05:07:12,100
on speech Burr. 
Quietly mastered logic and moral

5550
05:07:12,100 --> 05:07:15,300
philosophy, gaining insights. 
That would eventually guide him 

5551
05:07:15,300 --> 05:07:17,100
through the Maze of political 
power. 

5552
05:07:17,800 --> 05:07:19,200
He wasn't just a bookish 
prodigy. 

5553
05:07:19,200 --> 05:07:22,500
You also enjoyed socialising and
made friends with students who 

5554
05:07:22,500 --> 05:07:26,100
noticed his quick wit, however, 
he kept his deeper intentions 

5555
05:07:26,100 --> 05:07:29,300
private. 
Burgh, graduated at the 

5556
05:07:29,300 --> 05:07:32,100
premature age of 16 and 1st 
pursued, theology. 

5557
05:07:33,000 --> 05:07:36,000
He studied with several pastors 
attempting to balance his 

5558
05:07:36,000 --> 05:07:37,900
intellectual rigor and spiritual
further. 

5559
05:07:38,600 --> 05:07:41,700
However, he regarded organized 
religion as excessively 

5560
05:07:41,700 --> 05:07:44,200
limiting. 
And he was wary of accepting 

5561
05:07:44,200 --> 05:07:47,400
dogmas without proof. 
His Restless intellect. 

5562
05:07:47,400 --> 05:07:50,500
Wanted a vocation that provided 
both Challenge and the prospect 

5563
05:07:50,500 --> 05:07:53,800
of global success. 
After studying with Dr. Joseph 

5564
05:07:53,800 --> 05:07:57,900
Bellamy, he gave up on the idea 
of becoming a minister Laura 

5565
05:07:57,900 --> 05:08:00,600
appeared, more substantial and 
open-ended a field in which 

5566
05:08:00,608 --> 05:08:03,300
Ingenuity and compelling, 
argument might change Fortunes 

5567
05:08:03,300 --> 05:08:07,700
in an instant, but first Destiny
beckoned him to an entirely 

5568
05:08:07,700 --> 05:08:11,500
different Arena, the war. 
The American colonies were 

5569
05:08:11,500 --> 05:08:13,600
drawing closer to open conflict 
with Britain. 

5570
05:08:13,600 --> 05:08:18,400
In 1775 Burr, was attracted by 
the Thunder of muskets and the 

5571
05:08:18,400 --> 05:08:21,500
swirl of patriotic discourse at 
the age of 19. 

5572
05:08:21,500 --> 05:08:26,000
He joined Benedict, Arnold's 
expedition to Quebec a perilous 

5573
05:08:26,000 --> 05:08:29,200
journey across the Maine Woods 
aimed undermining British power 

5574
05:08:29,200 --> 05:08:31,900
in Canada. 
The arduous March tested every 

5575
05:08:31,900 --> 05:08:35,200
ounce of birds fortitude. 
Many men faltered in frigid 

5576
05:08:35,200 --> 05:08:37,100
temperatures. 
But burp, persevered 

5577
05:08:37,100 --> 05:08:40,200
demonstrating a tenaciousness 
that pleased his superiors. 

5578
05:08:40,200 --> 05:08:44,400
Although the campaigned to seize
Quebec in established a 

5579
05:08:44,400 --> 05:08:47,400
reputation for bravery, in the 
face of adversity, he was even 

5580
05:08:47,400 --> 05:08:49,300
reported to have carried 
wounded, General Richard, 

5581
05:08:49,300 --> 05:08:53,100
Montgomery off the field though.
The exact specifics are unclear.

5582
05:08:54,000 --> 05:08:56,900
Throughout the revolution bird, 
distinguished himself in the 

5583
05:08:56,900 --> 05:08:59,800
Continental Army, temporarily 
served as an aide to General 

5584
05:08:59,800 --> 05:09:03,400
George Washington but the two 
disagreed Washington's quiet 

5585
05:09:03,400 --> 05:09:05,600
character clashed with birds 
more daring. 

5586
05:09:05,600 --> 05:09:08,400
Attitude birth thought the 
commander-in-chief to be overly 

5587
05:09:08,400 --> 05:09:10,700
cautious. 
Afraid to undertake dramatic 

5588
05:09:10,700 --> 05:09:12,200
movements that he believed would
hasten. 

5589
05:09:12,200 --> 05:09:15,700
The end of the war. 
Buzz military career was 

5590
05:09:15,700 --> 05:09:18,500
unaffected by his resignation 
from Washington staff. 

5591
05:09:19,300 --> 05:09:22,500
He continued to serve in various
positions, eventually commanding

5592
05:09:22,500 --> 05:09:27,100
a unit at the Battle of Monmouth
in 1778, harsh surroundings and 

5593
05:09:27,100 --> 05:09:31,800
never-ending demands weighed on 
him and in 1779 health, issues, 

5594
05:09:31,800 --> 05:09:35,700
caused him to leave active duty.
Still, by the time the guns went

5595
05:09:35,700 --> 05:09:39,000
silent, but her demonstrated 
that he was neither a timid 

5596
05:09:39,000 --> 05:09:42,600
thinker, nor a man of words. 
After experiencing both wartime 

5597
05:09:42,600 --> 05:09:45,900
heroism and the sting of near 
constant friction, the 

5598
05:09:45,900 --> 05:09:47,700
redirected his energy into the 
law. 

5599
05:09:47,700 --> 05:09:51,300
Post war, America was brimming 
with chances for ambitious young

5600
05:09:51,300 --> 05:09:53,500
men. 
And bow was eager to take them. 

5601
05:09:54,300 --> 05:09:56,600
He studied in the offices of 
well known lawyers in New York. 

5602
05:09:56,600 --> 05:10:00,100
Soon, as establishing himself as
bright detail-oriented, and 

5603
05:10:00,100 --> 05:10:04,200
practical by 1782. 
He had married Theodosia Prevost

5604
05:10:04,200 --> 05:10:07,500
a widow with academic interests 
that suited his desire for 

5605
05:10:07,500 --> 05:10:10,100
discourse. 
Their connection would quietly 

5606
05:10:10,100 --> 05:10:13,500
shape, Buzz worldview, Theodosia
supported, his Legal, 

5607
05:10:13,500 --> 05:10:15,100
Professional and gave emotional 
stability. 

5608
05:10:15,100 --> 05:10:18,500
Which was sometimes lacking in a
post-war maliar flux. 

5609
05:10:19,600 --> 05:10:23,200
Before relocating to New York 
City, Burr practiced law, in 

5610
05:10:23,200 --> 05:10:27,200
Albany after receiving his 
borrowed mission in 1782, his 

5611
05:10:27,200 --> 05:10:30,900
legal knowledge combined with an
unassuming charm made him an 

5612
05:10:30,900 --> 05:10:33,700
effective advocate. 
He took on high-profile cases 

5613
05:10:33,700 --> 05:10:37,000
representing both wealthy 
merchants and underdogs and 

5614
05:10:37,000 --> 05:10:39,200
created fascinating narratives 
that wow. 

5615
05:10:39,200 --> 05:10:42,000
Juries burs legal 
accomplishment, paved the 

5616
05:10:42,008 --> 05:10:45,200
groundwork for his political 
career, the nascent Republic 

5617
05:10:45,200 --> 05:10:48,600
needed voices that understood 
both the law and the delicate 

5618
05:10:48,600 --> 05:10:51,200
balance of power. 
Burr believed he could shape 

5619
05:10:51,200 --> 05:10:55,100
that Dynamic to his advantage 
and he reasoned the nation's as 

5620
05:10:55,100 --> 05:10:57,900
well. 
With the wars Echo still Vivid 

5621
05:10:57,900 --> 05:11:01,100
in public memory, burst set out 
on a voyage that would take him 

5622
05:11:01,100 --> 05:11:03,800
to the Pinnacles of American 
politics as well as its lowest 

5623
05:11:03,800 --> 05:11:07,700
depths. 
By the late 1780s, New York's 

5624
05:11:07,700 --> 05:11:10,900
political, seen a change with 
various factions competing for 

5625
05:11:10,900 --> 05:11:15,200
power in the new United States. 
Aaron Burr, navigated, a sea of 

5626
05:11:15,200 --> 05:11:17,900
alliance's making subtle 
contacts behind the scenes. 

5627
05:11:18,600 --> 05:11:20,900
Here, little regard for Grand 
ideological speeches. 

5628
05:11:20,900 --> 05:11:23,900
You viewed Politics as focused 
on practical arrangements and 

5629
05:11:23,900 --> 05:11:27,900
mutual benefit some co-workers 
appreciated his focus on results

5630
05:11:27,900 --> 05:11:30,200
While others called him 
opportunistic. 

5631
05:11:30,200 --> 05:11:34,300
Burr's strategy, propelled him 
forward quickly in 1789. 

5632
05:11:34,300 --> 05:11:37,400
He first entered formal office 
when Governor George Clinton 

5633
05:11:37,400 --> 05:11:40,600
appointed him as the state's 
attorney general, Bert the role 

5634
05:11:40,600 --> 05:11:44,500
seriously Prosecuting crimes and
enhancing the legal system, 

5635
05:11:44,500 --> 05:11:48,100
political gossip, not legal 
progress, kept him. 

5636
05:11:48,100 --> 05:11:50,800
In the spotlight Burke kept his 
opinions on the Federal 

5637
05:11:50,800 --> 05:11:54,000
Constitution to himself seldom, 
engaging in the intense 

5638
05:11:54,000 --> 05:11:56,300
conflicts between Federalists 
and Anti-Federalists. 

5639
05:11:57,000 --> 05:12:00,200
Such Behavior kept him 
mysterious a friend to both 

5640
05:12:00,200 --> 05:12:04,400
sides yet loyal to neither. 
The strategy was wise the 

5641
05:12:04,400 --> 05:12:07,400
controversial among purists 
seeking unwavering loyalty to 

5642
05:12:07,400 --> 05:12:11,800
one Camp bursin popularity led 
to his election to the senate in

5643
05:12:11,800 --> 05:12:17,000
1791 where he defeated incumbent
Philip Schuyler Hamilton was 

5644
05:12:17,000 --> 05:12:20,100
alarmed by Buzz rise, seeing it 
as a direct threat. 

5645
05:12:21,100 --> 05:12:24,000
Hamilton supported strong 
financial systems for the nation

5646
05:12:24,000 --> 05:12:27,100
such as a federal bank and 
centralized fiscal policy. 

5647
05:12:27,100 --> 05:12:30,200
The question Hamilton's 
concentration of authority 

5648
05:12:30,200 --> 05:12:32,400
without directly opposing these 
actions. 

5649
05:12:33,200 --> 05:12:36,100
Burr, acknowledge states rights 
to an extent, but emphasized, 

5650
05:12:36,100 --> 05:12:40,400
personal Liberty, especially his
own The animosity between the 

5651
05:12:40,400 --> 05:12:43,600
two men, grew gradually hidden 
behind the formality of 

5652
05:12:43,608 --> 05:12:47,000
legislative procedures. 
Burgain recognition in the 

5653
05:12:47,000 --> 05:12:48,900
senate for his subtle and 
effective speeches. 

5654
05:12:48,900 --> 05:12:52,600
He seldom gave long speeches. 
Favoring quick points to sway 

5655
05:12:52,600 --> 05:12:55,700
undecided members. 
He built cross-party coalitions 

5656
05:12:55,700 --> 05:12:58,700
confusing colleagues who 
insisted on taking sides in the 

5657
05:12:58,708 --> 05:13:01,300
Federalist. 
Republican divided as Coalition 

5658
05:13:01,300 --> 05:13:03,200
building skills. 
Terrified Hamilton further. 

5659
05:13:04,000 --> 05:13:06,100
By returned to New York when not
in session. 

5660
05:13:06,900 --> 05:13:09,200
It's banding his legal practice 
and maintaining contacts. 

5661
05:13:09,200 --> 05:13:12,700
The kept him a prominent figure.
In City politics, his personal 

5662
05:13:12,700 --> 05:13:16,300
life changed significantly Burr 
was left tort after the death of

5663
05:13:16,300 --> 05:13:19,400
his wife Theodosia Prevost and 
1794. 

5664
05:13:19,400 --> 05:13:24,800
They had a daughter Theodosia 
born in 1783 Berk concentrated, 

5665
05:13:24,800 --> 05:13:28,200
his emotional energy on her 
educational, he thought women's 

5666
05:13:28,200 --> 05:13:31,100
intellectual abilities were 
undervalued so he took charge of

5667
05:13:31,100 --> 05:13:34,500
her stutters exposing her to 
literature geography, and 

5668
05:13:34,500 --> 05:13:36,300
philosophy. 
Burr's father. 

5669
05:13:36,300 --> 05:13:40,100
Daughter relationship was a key 
influence in his life shape, his

5670
05:13:40,100 --> 05:13:43,200
Progressive views on women's 
roles, which were rare among his

5671
05:13:43,200 --> 05:13:47,700
peers in the late 1790s Bears. 
Political fortunes varied, 

5672
05:13:48,300 --> 05:13:51,800
Prominent politicians 
overshadowed him in 1797 and he 

5673
05:13:51,800 --> 05:13:55,400
lost his Senate re-election. 
He leveraged his Network in New 

5674
05:13:55,400 --> 05:13:57,900
York's Tammany Hall, which was 
evolving into a powerful 

5675
05:13:57,900 --> 05:14:00,900
political machine. 
Spurs early involvement with 

5676
05:14:00,900 --> 05:14:04,000
Tammany focused on Grassroots 
organizing despite the groups 

5677
05:14:04,000 --> 05:14:05,600
later association with 
corruption. 

5678
05:14:06,200 --> 05:14:09,200
He understood that mobilizing 
regular voters instead of 

5679
05:14:09,200 --> 05:14:12,600
seeking approval from Elites was
essential for gaining power. 

5680
05:14:13,600 --> 05:14:16,100
This focus on widespread 
involvement distinguished him. 

5681
05:14:16,108 --> 05:14:19,300
From many Federalists, who 
viewed democracy as a fragile 

5682
05:14:19,300 --> 05:14:20,900
issue. 
Best managed by property. 

5683
05:14:20,900 --> 05:14:24,900
Owning Elites as the 1800 
election neared burst ties with 

5684
05:14:24,900 --> 05:14:27,400
Democratic Republicans 
specially, Thomas Jefferson 

5685
05:14:27,400 --> 05:14:30,500
strength and the Federalists 
were falling apart. 

5686
05:14:30,500 --> 05:14:33,400
And John Adams administration 
had lost its appeal. 

5687
05:14:34,100 --> 05:14:36,700
Burke quietly, secured 
Jefferson's electoral votes in 

5688
05:14:36,708 --> 05:14:39,700
New York, orchestrating, a 
surprising upset through the 

5689
05:14:39,708 --> 05:14:43,300
city's, crucial vote block. 
Burr was in line for the vice 

5690
05:14:43,300 --> 05:14:47,000
president sea, but an unusual 
constitutional Quirk arose 

5691
05:14:47,000 --> 05:14:50,200
Jeffers Jefferson and Bert in 
the Electoral College. 

5692
05:14:50,200 --> 05:14:53,100
Hamilton intervened in a 
LinkedIn house debate, 

5693
05:14:53,100 --> 05:14:56,300
convincing Federalists to 
support Jefferson over Burr. 

5694
05:14:57,000 --> 05:15:00,400
Hamilton disliked Jefferson's 
politics but loathed Burma or 

5695
05:15:00,408 --> 05:15:04,800
seeing him as on principled and 
unscrupulous Jefferson won. 

5696
05:15:04,800 --> 05:15:08,000
The president, say and bourbon 
came vice president, but the 

5697
05:15:08,008 --> 05:15:12,500
affair left a lasting impact. 
Betrayed believing Hamilton's 

5698
05:15:12,500 --> 05:15:13,900
actions. 
Damaged his reputation. 

5699
05:15:14,800 --> 05:15:17,400
The idea of Honor. 
Crucial in early American 

5700
05:15:17,400 --> 05:15:20,700
politics, ultimately resulted in
a disastrous conflict. 

5701
05:15:21,500 --> 05:15:24,800
Burp, played the second man and 
certain of his influence in 

5702
05:15:24,800 --> 05:15:28,300
Jefferson's administration. 
The vice presidency then was not

5703
05:15:28,300 --> 05:15:30,900
a route to Fame by presides over
the Senate. 

5704
05:15:30,900 --> 05:15:33,400
But plays a minimal role in 
executive decisions. 

5705
05:15:33,400 --> 05:15:37,100
Jefferson was wary of Burrs 
ambition and maintained distance

5706
05:15:37,100 --> 05:15:39,400
from him Burr. 
As presiding officer of the 

5707
05:15:39,400 --> 05:15:43,100
Senate chamber showed remarkable
fairness earning praise from his

5708
05:15:43,100 --> 05:15:46,900
ideological opponents. 
The largest stage called Rumours

5709
05:15:46,900 --> 05:15:49,100
of a Governor's running in New 
York or other high positions 

5710
05:15:49,100 --> 05:15:52,100
fueled Bears ambition. 
Aaron Burr. 

5711
05:15:52,100 --> 05:15:56,800
Vice president, from 1801 to 
1805 Feud, his formal duties as 

5712
05:15:56,800 --> 05:15:59,500
Limited. 
After defeating the Federalists 

5713
05:15:59,500 --> 05:16:02,300
Thomas Jefferson excluded burr 
from the main group that 

5714
05:16:02,300 --> 05:16:05,200
influenced policy. 
The president chose a cabinet 

5715
05:16:05,200 --> 05:16:08,700
that matched his vision allowing
Bert to provide over the Senate 

5716
05:16:08,700 --> 05:16:10,300
with notable calmness and 
fairness. 

5717
05:16:11,300 --> 05:16:13,800
For an ambitious man, being a 
polite referee during 

5718
05:16:13,800 --> 05:16:15,700
legislative session felt 
oppressive. 

5719
05:16:16,500 --> 05:16:20,000
Buzz resentment grew gradually. 
He invested great effort in 

5720
05:16:20,000 --> 05:16:23,500
ensuring Jefferson's success, 
but gained little in political 

5721
05:16:23,500 --> 05:16:27,800
Rewards, Jefferson Circle 
influenced by Madison and others

5722
05:16:27,800 --> 05:16:30,400
opposed Bears flexible 
Partnerships. 

5723
05:16:30,400 --> 05:16:34,000
They viewed him as a political 
chameleon prioritizing personal 

5724
05:16:34,000 --> 05:16:37,600
gain over intellectual beliefs. 
Per viewed unwavering 

5725
05:16:37,600 --> 05:16:40,400
partnership as unwise. 
You believe the Republic 

5726
05:16:40,400 --> 05:16:43,000
prospered When leaders work 
together across factions. 

5727
05:16:43,800 --> 05:16:48,400
The ideological divide deepened 
in 1804 bermed for the New York 

5728
05:16:48,408 --> 05:16:51,300
governorship believing. 
This influential role would 

5729
05:16:51,300 --> 05:16:55,200
restore his National prominence.
The race was full of intrigue 

5730
05:16:55,200 --> 05:16:59,000
birth faced tough competition 
from Morgan Lewis supported by 

5731
05:16:59,000 --> 05:17:01,600
Dewitt Clinton, the notable 
nephew of Governor, George 

5732
05:17:01,600 --> 05:17:04,800
Clinton, and Alexander 
Hamilton's group Hamilton, stood

5733
05:17:04,800 --> 05:17:06,700
prominently against Burr's 
candidacy. 

5734
05:17:06,700 --> 05:17:09,700
Hamilton, portrayed Burr as a 
power hungry individual, who 

5735
05:17:09,700 --> 05:17:12,900
found it difficult to manage a 
municipal Council, let alone a 

5736
05:17:12,900 --> 05:17:17,300
state bird was a polled, Burrell
lost the race significantly. 

5737
05:17:17,300 --> 05:17:20,400
If felt worse than a political 
failure, it seemed like a 

5738
05:17:20,408 --> 05:17:23,900
personal betrayal by Hamilton. 
Rumours emerged that Hamilton 

5739
05:17:23,900 --> 05:17:27,500
made negative remarks about Burr
at private dinners, describing 

5740
05:17:27,500 --> 05:17:30,900
him as morally, corrupt, the 
worried they had a reply 

5741
05:17:30,900 --> 05:17:35,100
damaged, his reputation. 
Bursts or dual as the sole means

5742
05:17:35,100 --> 05:17:38,300
to restore his honor in that 
era, though, it may seem odd. 

5743
05:17:38,300 --> 05:17:41,700
Now, for many Americans in the 
18th century, a man's honor was 

5744
05:17:41,708 --> 05:17:46,500
like vital currency essential 
for engaging in public life Burr

5745
05:17:46,500 --> 05:17:49,100
challenged Hamilton to a duel in
the summer of 1804. 

5746
05:17:49,100 --> 05:17:53,200
The men negotiated details 
through intermediaries adhering 

5747
05:17:53,200 --> 05:17:56,900
to the conventions of the time 
on July 11th 1804. 

5748
05:17:56,900 --> 05:18:00,900
They met at Weehawken New 
Jersey, a secluded spot on the 

5749
05:18:00,908 --> 05:18:02,600
Palisades above the Hudson 
River. 

5750
05:18:02,600 --> 05:18:06,000
Some versions suggest that 
Hamilton meant to throw away his

5751
05:18:06,000 --> 05:18:07,600
shot. 
Indicating he would 

5752
05:18:07,600 --> 05:18:10,600
intentionally Miss hoping Burr 
would do the same. 

5753
05:18:10,600 --> 05:18:14,900
Burley to claimed, he thought 
Hamilton was aiming to kill as 

5754
05:18:14,900 --> 05:18:18,200
the smoke cleared a bullet. 
Hit Hamilton in the abdomen. 

5755
05:18:18,200 --> 05:18:24,000
Killing him Burr unharmed turned
into a fugitive in the Public's 

5756
05:18:24,000 --> 05:18:26,200
eye Hamilton's death the 
following day. 

5757
05:18:26,200 --> 05:18:29,200
Ignited widespread condemnation 
Burr face. 

5758
05:18:29,200 --> 05:18:32,100
Murder in indictments in New 
York and New Jersey, but the 

5759
05:18:32,100 --> 05:18:35,500
charges were never Pursued the 
tragedy overshadowed any 

5760
05:18:35,500 --> 05:18:38,800
details, reasoning for their 
hostility, the public largely 

5761
05:18:38,800 --> 05:18:42,100
backed Hamilton The Federalist 
Papers lauded him as a brilliant

5762
05:18:42,100 --> 05:18:44,500
politician, hindered by a Vane 
rivalry. 

5763
05:18:45,000 --> 05:18:48,600
First political prospects, fell 
apart, Jefferson explicitly, 

5764
05:18:48,600 --> 05:18:50,400
barred him from any further 
participation. 

5765
05:18:50,400 --> 05:18:54,200
In the government newspapers 
labeled him a murderer even 

5766
05:18:54,200 --> 05:18:57,300
though who once, admired his 
intelligence or heroism, a 

5767
05:18:57,300 --> 05:18:59,800
distance themselves. 
Burke completed his 

5768
05:18:59,800 --> 05:19:02,000
vice-presidency. 
Eager to salvage. 

5769
05:19:02,000 --> 05:19:04,800
What he could yet the Dual 
loomed over the painful 

5770
05:19:04,800 --> 05:19:07,400
conclusion at the final Senate 
session. 

5771
05:19:07,400 --> 05:19:09,700
He delivered a heartfelt, 
goodbye message. 

5772
05:19:09,700 --> 05:19:11,800
That brought some Senators to 
tears. 

5773
05:19:12,500 --> 05:19:16,200
Yet dignity in language, could 
not erase the mark of Hamilton's

5774
05:19:16,200 --> 05:19:18,700
death. 
The found himself adrift after 

5775
05:19:18,700 --> 05:19:22,600
his departure from office in 
1805, he was left with without a

5776
05:19:22,600 --> 05:19:25,600
public office consistent support
or a good reputation. 

5777
05:19:26,400 --> 05:19:29,200
He tried to manage his 
increasing debts, some 

5778
05:19:29,200 --> 05:19:31,900
suggested, he returned to 
practice but the incident left 

5779
05:19:31,900 --> 05:19:35,400
high profile clients weary Some 
believed he could move to Europe

5780
05:19:35,400 --> 05:19:38,600
for a new beginning. 
But adopted, a bold strategy, 

5781
05:19:38,600 --> 05:19:42,200
exploring the American frontier 
for new political opportunities.

5782
05:19:42,200 --> 05:19:45,500
He journeyed West connecting 
with Frontier leaders and 

5783
05:19:45,500 --> 05:19:47,500
exploring the Ohio and 
Mississippi valleys. 

5784
05:19:47,500 --> 05:19:50,000
The Louisiana Purchase opened 
vast. 

5785
05:19:50,000 --> 05:19:53,700
Territories igniting talks of 
new states or possibly 

5786
05:19:53,700 --> 05:19:57,500
independent nations. 
From Spanish lands burs motives 

5787
05:19:57,500 --> 05:20:00,400
are still up for debate. 
Some believe he aimed to occupy 

5788
05:20:00,400 --> 05:20:03,200
these regions legally. 
While others claim he sought to 

5789
05:20:03,200 --> 05:20:05,100
incite revolt and create a new 
Empire. 

5790
05:20:05,800 --> 05:20:09,500
Burr always enigmatic revealed 
little about his ultimate goal. 

5791
05:20:09,500 --> 05:20:12,500
He built connections with 
influential frontiersmen like 

5792
05:20:12,500 --> 05:20:15,400
General James Wilkinson. 
The governor of the Louisiana 

5793
05:20:15,400 --> 05:20:19,900
Territory and a US Army Officer.
But a recognized, the potential 

5794
05:20:19,900 --> 05:20:23,000
in leading a private expedition 
to benefit from the southwestern

5795
05:20:23,000 --> 05:20:26,000
Frontier. 
Whispers circulated back East 

5796
05:20:26,000 --> 05:20:29,700
was the disgraced form of Vice 
President, scheming against the 

5797
05:20:29,700 --> 05:20:32,900
United States. 
Federal officials found cryptic 

5798
05:20:32,900 --> 05:20:34,600
notes. 
Suggesting suspicious motives 

5799
05:20:34,600 --> 05:20:37,300
Jefferson. 
Not a friend of Burr. 

5800
05:20:37,300 --> 05:20:38,800
Had to carry out an 
investigation. 

5801
05:20:40,100 --> 05:20:43,100
A dramatic legal spectacle was 
poised to challenge the nation's

5802
05:20:43,100 --> 05:20:45,800
views on treason and explore the
limits of personal ambition. 

5803
05:20:46,900 --> 05:20:47,800
Burr. 
Moved to head. 

5804
05:20:47,800 --> 05:20:51,500
Sure of his cleverness. 
Oblivious that his next step 

5805
05:20:51,500 --> 05:20:54,800
would thrust him from political 
Exile into a web of conspiracy 

5806
05:20:54,800 --> 05:21:00,300
trials that endangered his life.
Between 1805 and 1807, Aaron 

5807
05:21:00,300 --> 05:21:02,400
Burr traversed. 
The Western border with a cover 

5808
05:21:02,400 --> 05:21:04,700
to gender. 
He spent time near the Ohio 

5809
05:21:04,700 --> 05:21:06,700
River. 
Negotiating for land. 

5810
05:21:06,700 --> 05:21:10,100
And speaking with militia 
officials, Buzz critics said, he

5811
05:21:10,100 --> 05:21:12,600
plan to conquer Spanish land, 
along the southwestern border 

5812
05:21:12,600 --> 05:21:15,900
and establishing new Empire with
himself at the helm. 

5813
05:21:15,900 --> 05:21:19,300
Others said he plan to push 
several western states or 

5814
05:21:19,300 --> 05:21:22,700
territories, to compare Reed. 
From the union establishing, a 

5815
05:21:22,700 --> 05:21:24,900
breakaway Republic. 
Burr. 

5816
05:21:24,900 --> 05:21:28,300
Spoke cryptically, addressing 
great undertakings and confiding

5817
05:21:28,300 --> 05:21:32,200
only in close Pals. 
To some his words evoked visions

5818
05:21:32,200 --> 05:21:35,500
of Fame and money to others. 
They smelled of blatant 

5819
05:21:35,500 --> 05:21:38,700
treachery James Wilkinson, a US 
Army Officer. 

5820
05:21:38,700 --> 05:21:41,900
Governor of both of the 
Louisiana Territory and known, 

5821
05:21:41,900 --> 05:21:46,000
double dealer was at the center 
of his scam, but and Wilkinson 

5822
05:21:46,000 --> 05:21:49,600
communicated and coded messages 
about Army movements resources 

5823
05:21:49,600 --> 05:21:53,400
and potential alliances. 
They're expected, Wilkinson's 

5824
05:21:53,400 --> 05:21:55,100
help to gather recruits for an 
expedition. 

5825
05:21:55,800 --> 05:21:58,000
It is unclear whether the 
expedition's goal was to 

5826
05:21:58,000 --> 05:22:01,400
liberate Spanish World, Mexico, 
or to seize American land. 

5827
05:22:02,300 --> 05:22:06,100
Regardless Bears plant use Armed
Force for personal gain crossed,

5828
05:22:06,100 --> 05:22:09,600
a dangerous boundary. 
President Thomas Jefferson urged

5829
05:22:09,600 --> 05:22:12,300
authorities to closely monitor 
the situation after hearing 

5830
05:22:12,300 --> 05:22:16,100
increasingly disturbing Rumors 
in October 1806. 

5831
05:22:16,100 --> 05:22:19,800
There are assembled a small 
Fleet on the Ohio River Laden 

5832
05:22:19,800 --> 05:22:22,600
with men, provisions and dubious
intentions. 

5833
05:22:22,600 --> 05:22:26,400
He led them South to the 
Mississippi Public concern. 

5834
05:22:26,400 --> 05:22:30,000
Grew if Burr actually intended 
to hit Spanish territory, it 

5835
05:22:30,000 --> 05:22:31,400
could spark an international 
crisis. 

5836
05:22:31,400 --> 05:22:34,600
If he collaborated against the 
United States, it was sheer 

5837
05:22:34,600 --> 05:22:37,200
treason. 
The disaster peaked. 

5838
05:22:37,200 --> 05:22:41,800
When Wilkinson always eager to 
rescue himself, disavowed Burr, 

5839
05:22:41,800 --> 05:22:44,800
and sent dispatchers, to 
Jefferson picking Burr as a 

5840
05:22:44,800 --> 05:22:48,000
conspirator. 
Berkeley discovered that law 

5841
05:22:48,000 --> 05:22:52,200
enforcement was onto him. 
Burr was caught in January 1807.

5842
05:22:52,200 --> 05:22:55,400
And what is now Alabama? 
Having been deceived by 

5843
05:22:55,400 --> 05:22:58,900
individuals he had formerly 
considered supporters He had 

5844
05:22:58,900 --> 05:23:01,700
just a small band of supporters 
left the rest, having dispersed,

5845
05:23:01,700 --> 05:23:05,500
when the Expedition lost Pace 
under protection, endured a 

5846
05:23:05,500 --> 05:23:07,300
perilous Journey Back East to 
face charges. 

5847
05:23:07,300 --> 05:23:10,400
The journey was humiliating. 
He had been honored as a 

5848
05:23:10,400 --> 05:23:13,200
military hero and vice 
president, but now he was 

5849
05:23:13,200 --> 05:23:16,400
paraded around Dusty Frontier 
communities as a criminal 

5850
05:23:16,400 --> 05:23:18,900
suspect when he finally arrived 
in Richmond. 

5851
05:23:18,900 --> 05:23:22,400
Virginia, he was indicted for 
treason and high misdemeanor. 

5852
05:23:23,500 --> 05:23:25,200
The subsequent trial of Aaron 
Burr. 

5853
05:23:25,200 --> 05:23:27,200
In 1807 was a national 
spectacle. 

5854
05:23:28,000 --> 05:23:31,200
The Constitution defines treason
as Waging War against the United

5855
05:23:31,200 --> 05:23:35,200
States or assisting its enemies.
And it requires two witnesses to

5856
05:23:35,200 --> 05:23:38,700
the same overt Act. 
In the prosecution against Burr.

5857
05:23:38,700 --> 05:23:41,400
The government struggled, to 
provide direct evidence that he 

5858
05:23:41,400 --> 05:23:44,300
had really fought in the War. 
They had reams of letters 

5859
05:23:44,300 --> 05:23:46,800
hinting at mischief and 
testimonies from turncoat, 

5860
05:23:46,800 --> 05:23:50,400
collaborators, but no clear 
evidence of a definite plan to 

5861
05:23:50,400 --> 05:23:54,700
break off territory or confront 
US forces Chief Justice, John. 

5862
05:23:54,700 --> 05:23:58,600
As a, as a Circuit Judge, 
Marshall insisted on strict, 

5863
05:23:58,600 --> 05:24:01,400
adherence to the Constitutional 
requirements for treason. 

5864
05:24:02,000 --> 05:24:04,600
Martial stance. 
Infuriated President Jefferson 

5865
05:24:04,600 --> 05:24:08,300
who saw Bears culpability as 
evident and demanded Speedy 

5866
05:24:08,300 --> 05:24:11,400
retribution. 
The trials drama captivated, the

5867
05:24:11,400 --> 05:24:15,300
Young Nation every day, scores 
of people lawyers and 

5868
05:24:15,300 --> 05:24:19,300
journalists jammed the courtroom
Burr with his typical cool 

5869
05:24:19,300 --> 05:24:22,400
attitude, served nearly as 
co-counsel in his defense 

5870
05:24:22,400 --> 05:24:25,300
meticulously scrutinizing 
Witnesses and evidence. 

5871
05:24:26,400 --> 05:24:28,000
He mocked the concept that 
Frontier. 

5872
05:24:28,000 --> 05:24:30,000
Gatherings are ambiguous 
conversation. 

5873
05:24:30,000 --> 05:24:34,200
Constituted treason at most. 
He contended, he could have been

5874
05:24:34,200 --> 05:24:37,100
planning an expedition against 
Spanish possessions in the event

5875
05:24:37,100 --> 05:24:39,700
of War. 
Hardly a crime if no war had 

5876
05:24:39,700 --> 05:24:41,900
been declared. 
What's the verdict? 

5877
05:24:42,800 --> 05:24:45,800
The jury acquitted of trees and 
due to inadequate proof of an 

5878
05:24:45,800 --> 05:24:48,400
averted. 
They also cleared him of a 

5879
05:24:48,400 --> 05:24:50,400
misdemeanor charge from 
mounting, an unlawful military 

5880
05:24:50,400 --> 05:24:52,800
Mission, public opinion remained
mixed. 

5881
05:24:52,800 --> 05:24:56,200
With many believing Burr was 
guilty and spirit of not inform 

5882
05:24:57,200 --> 05:25:00,900
Jefferson was Furious fearing. 
That clever legal techniques. 

5883
05:25:00,900 --> 05:25:03,600
And Marshalls Federalists 
leaning had protected by 

5884
05:25:03,600 --> 05:25:07,500
however, the outcomes stood 
leaving birth free but 

5885
05:25:07,500 --> 05:25:11,400
permanently sawed Following the 
trial Burrs money and reputation

5886
05:25:11,400 --> 05:25:14,600
were in shambles friends, 
disappeared credit was 

5887
05:25:14,600 --> 05:25:17,600
non-existent and Trust in any 
Source was low. 

5888
05:25:18,400 --> 05:25:21,000
Fresh western expansion, plan 
was out of the question. 

5889
05:25:21,000 --> 05:25:23,200
His, every step would be 
examined. 

5890
05:25:23,900 --> 05:25:27,800
Burr facing near certain 
ostracism chose to depart to 

5891
05:25:27,800 --> 05:25:30,800
Europe in 1808. 
He had an audacious plan, 

5892
05:25:30,800 --> 05:25:35,600
perhaps foreign powers such as 
Britain or France could find 

5893
05:25:35,600 --> 05:25:38,900
Value in his strategic mind and 
sponsor a fresh Voyage to the 

5894
05:25:38,908 --> 05:25:41,300
Americas. 
If that fails, he may become a 

5895
05:25:41,308 --> 05:25:44,500
permanent Exile moving from one 
European Capital to another 

5896
05:25:44,500 --> 05:25:47,100
embarking on a ship under an 
assumed identity. 

5897
05:25:47,100 --> 05:25:50,500
The once vibrant politician 
plummeted into what appeared to 

5898
05:25:50,500 --> 05:25:53,700
be irreversible, obscurity, 
leaving behind a country that 

5899
05:25:53,700 --> 05:25:56,600
would remember him only as a 
duelist and an alleged Trader. 

5900
05:25:57,700 --> 05:26:01,800
Aaron Burr Travel to Europe in 
1808 in search of a fresh start,

5901
05:26:01,800 --> 05:26:04,200
or a financial boost to help him
achieve his goals. 

5902
05:26:04,200 --> 05:26:07,500
He traveled around England, 
France, and other countries 

5903
05:26:07,500 --> 05:26:11,900
meeting, politicians, bankers 
and explorers, The charismatic 

5904
05:26:11,900 --> 05:26:15,200
man who negotiated New York's 
political environment, attempted

5905
05:26:15,200 --> 05:26:17,500
to persuade Europeans that he 
could make a significant 

5906
05:26:17,500 --> 05:26:19,700
difference in the Americas with 
their assistance. 

5907
05:26:20,700 --> 05:26:24,400
The times had changed European 
powers were engaged in the 

5908
05:26:24,400 --> 05:26:27,900
Napoleonic Wars focusing on 
conflicts in Europe rather than 

5909
05:26:27,900 --> 05:26:31,600
transatlantic strategies. 
Burr's imprecise and impractical

5910
05:26:31,600 --> 05:26:34,500
plans garnered only courteous 
nods and dubious, stairs, 

5911
05:26:34,500 --> 05:26:38,200
expatriates in London, suspected
Burr of plotting a war between 

5912
05:26:38,200 --> 05:26:41,200
the United States and Spain to 
take Spanish possessions. 

5913
05:26:42,100 --> 05:26:45,200
British intelligence tracked 
Burr, wary of potential, 

5914
05:26:45,200 --> 05:26:49,700
Partnerships, Buzz, finances, 
decreased, requiring him to rely

5915
05:26:49,700 --> 05:26:53,200
on loans from acquaintances or 
limited assistance from older 

5916
05:26:53,200 --> 05:26:55,900
American friends. 
The form of Vice President 

5917
05:26:55,900 --> 05:26:58,900
resided in Rundown. 
Rented Apartments writing, 

5918
05:26:58,900 --> 05:27:01,400
letters to potential donors. 
Who no longer saw him as a 

5919
05:27:01,400 --> 05:27:04,800
useful Ally. 
His famed ability with words was

5920
05:27:04,800 --> 05:27:08,600
insufficient to deter creditors 
Burr, relocated his activities 

5921
05:27:08,600 --> 05:27:12,400
to Paris in 1810 hoping to find 
a more welcoming atmosphere on 

5922
05:27:12,400 --> 05:27:15,400
under Napoleon's rule. 
He encountered bureaucratic 

5923
05:27:15,400 --> 05:27:17,100
obstacles and disinterest there 
as well? 

5924
05:27:18,200 --> 05:27:20,700
The French had interest in Spain
and were not interested in 

5925
05:27:20,700 --> 05:27:22,700
supporting a renegade. 
American proposal. 

5926
05:27:23,400 --> 05:27:26,500
Burst demands for an audience. 
Frequently went unanswered for 

5927
05:27:26,500 --> 05:27:29,300
long periods. the French 
authorities occasionally 

5928
05:27:29,300 --> 05:27:32,700
restricted, his movements, 
suspecting him of Espionage or 

5929
05:27:32,700 --> 05:27:36,200
subversion of Bird voiced 
frustration in his diary about 

5930
05:27:36,200 --> 05:27:39,700
the difficulties of being a 
stateless traveler without a 

5931
05:27:39,700 --> 05:27:41,900
purpose. 
He attempted to maintain his 

5932
05:27:41,900 --> 05:27:45,000
dignity by referring to himself 
in Social Circles, as Colonel 

5933
05:27:45,000 --> 05:27:49,400
Burr, or the American traveler 
omitting, his scandalous 

5934
05:27:49,400 --> 05:27:52,000
history. 
He had some success delivering 

5935
05:27:52,000 --> 05:27:54,400
Revolutionary War or early 
American politics. 

5936
05:27:54,400 --> 05:27:57,600
Anecdotes at dinner, Gatherings 
the man who had dueled with 

5937
05:27:57,600 --> 05:28:00,000
Hamilton. 
Risked, the death penalty for 

5938
05:28:00,000 --> 05:28:02,800
treason and was now, pursuing 
crazy Adventures. 

5939
05:28:02,800 --> 05:28:05,500
Drew the attention of some 
Parisian intellectuals. 

5940
05:28:06,200 --> 05:28:10,200
Fascination rarely led to 
genuine support Burr, no longer 

5941
05:28:10,200 --> 05:28:12,800
attacked by American Media faced
a bitter irony. 

5942
05:28:13,500 --> 05:28:17,000
In Europe, he was less Infamous 
but also less significant. 

5943
05:28:17,900 --> 05:28:20,100
Bird's name was hardly spoken in
the United States. 

5944
05:28:20,100 --> 05:28:24,600
Accepting cautionary, tales of 
ambition and gone bad, the war 

5945
05:28:24,600 --> 05:28:29,000
of the 1812 overshadowed, his 
legacy America face fresh war 

5946
05:28:29,000 --> 05:28:31,600
with Britain but Burr remained 
helpless abroad. 

5947
05:28:32,500 --> 05:28:35,500
By 1812. 
He was nearly bankrupt relying 

5948
05:28:35,500 --> 05:28:37,800
on the generosity of a few 
devoted friends or new 

5949
05:28:37,800 --> 05:28:40,700
acquaintances who, like to talk 
enough to take him to dinner on 

5950
05:28:40,700 --> 05:28:43,300
occasion, he felt the burden of 
returning to America. 

5951
05:28:43,300 --> 05:28:47,000
Will get rearrested will 
creditors pursue him, is it 

5952
05:28:47,000 --> 05:28:51,200
possible to reconstruct a life? 
Bird decided to come home in 

5953
05:28:51,200 --> 05:28:53,200
1812 because he saw no future in
Europe. 

5954
05:28:53,900 --> 05:28:57,500
The return was humiliating, he 
adopted an alias to avoid 

5955
05:28:57,500 --> 05:29:00,100
exposure. 
When he arrived in Boston in 

5956
05:29:00,100 --> 05:29:03,300
1812, he discovered a 
transformed Nation. 

5957
05:29:04,000 --> 05:29:05,800
The second conflict with 
Britain, tested. 

5958
05:29:05,800 --> 05:29:09,600
America's might the Federalist 
Party which could have offered 

5959
05:29:09,600 --> 05:29:11,400
him to stability was in 
disarray. 

5960
05:29:11,400 --> 05:29:15,800
The Republican faction led by 
Madison had little interest in a

5961
05:29:15,800 --> 05:29:19,500
person deemed toxic Reclaiming. 
A tiny political position seemed

5962
05:29:19,500 --> 05:29:22,200
hopeless. 
Burr was enticed in New York 

5963
05:29:22,208 --> 05:29:25,200
City where he was once regarded 
as a legal Powerhouse. 

5964
05:29:26,000 --> 05:29:29,000
Quite quietly, resumed 
practicing law and maintained a 

5965
05:29:29,000 --> 05:29:32,100
low profile, despite initial 
skepticism in the legal 

5966
05:29:32,100 --> 05:29:33,600
Community. 
His abilities. 

5967
05:29:33,600 --> 05:29:36,000
Finally attracted enough clients
to keep him afloat. 

5968
05:29:36,000 --> 05:29:40,500
The era of extravagant balls, 
sophisticated dinner parties and

5969
05:29:40,500 --> 05:29:43,500
daring political moves has 
passed Birds. 

5970
05:29:43,500 --> 05:29:46,400
Existence was restricted to an 
office a modest living 

5971
05:29:46,400 --> 05:29:49,200
Arrangement and occasional 
social Gatherings with a few 

5972
05:29:49,208 --> 05:29:51,700
acquaintances who tolerated his 
ruined reputation. 

5973
05:29:52,700 --> 05:29:56,900
In 1813, his daughter, Theodosia
went missing at Sea causing 

5974
05:29:56,900 --> 05:30:00,000
personal anguish. 
She set sail from South Carolina

5975
05:30:00,000 --> 05:30:04,200
to New York, but her ship 
disappeared, the cause Pirates, 

5976
05:30:04,200 --> 05:30:08,300
a storm or mechanical breakdown,
was unknown, but it was saddened

5977
05:30:08,300 --> 05:30:10,800
after losing the one person who 
had always trusted in him. 

5978
05:30:10,800 --> 05:30:14,900
Despite the scandals, his 
Diaries from this period reveal 

5979
05:30:14,900 --> 05:30:17,800
intense, anguish and a sense of 
universal unfairness. 

5980
05:30:17,800 --> 05:30:21,500
He lost his wife years ago, 
abandoned his political career 

5981
05:30:21,500 --> 05:30:25,900
and now his daughter is vanished
Bird drifted through duties in 

5982
05:30:25,900 --> 05:30:29,300
the 1810s, surviving, but 
troubled, occasionally 

5983
05:30:29,300 --> 05:30:32,000
acquaintances spotted, flashes 
of his previous charm. 

5984
05:30:32,000 --> 05:30:35,500
Sly humor, and acute mind 
capable of dissecting illegal 

5985
05:30:35,500 --> 05:30:38,400
case. 
It was as if he had subdued a 

5986
05:30:38,400 --> 05:30:42,100
formidable Force. 
The Pressly mentioned him Millie

5987
05:30:42,100 --> 05:30:44,500
reporting the occasional lawsuit
or article. 

5988
05:30:45,200 --> 05:30:49,000
As the War of 1812 ended and the
country entered, the Era of Good

5989
05:30:49,000 --> 05:30:52,100
Feelings. 
Bursted on the sidelines, a 

5990
05:30:52,100 --> 05:30:53,600
reminder of a more turbulent 
era. 

5991
05:30:54,200 --> 05:30:56,100
Bears. 
Attention switched to Urgent 

5992
05:30:56,100 --> 05:30:59,700
problems as new leaders defined,
the Republic's future leaving 

5993
05:30:59,700 --> 05:31:01,400
him unsure. 
Whether he could redeem his 

5994
05:31:01,400 --> 05:31:05,300
tarnished reputation. 
Aaron Burr, a lawyer in New 

5995
05:31:05,300 --> 05:31:09,200
York, in the 1820s lived, in 
obscurity and had few Illusions.

5996
05:31:09,200 --> 05:31:13,500
His survival abilities remained 
good He handled a continuous 

5997
05:31:13,500 --> 05:31:17,200
flow of legal cases, including 
contract disputes, a state, 

5998
05:31:17,200 --> 05:31:19,200
matters, and occasionally 
criminal defense. 

5999
05:31:20,100 --> 05:31:22,800
Elder residents in the cities 
quiet Corners, remembered his 

6000
05:31:22,800 --> 05:31:25,900
flashy youth, while younger 
residents, considered him a 

6001
05:31:25,900 --> 05:31:30,200
footnote to the Hamilton duel or
a cautionary, Tale. when an 

6002
05:31:30,200 --> 05:31:32,500
enthusiastic journalist 
attempted to interview him about

6003
05:31:32,500 --> 05:31:37,500
those exciting occurrences, but 
while cordial remained invasive 

6004
05:31:37,500 --> 05:31:41,300
or imprecise, Burr. 
Maintained, a sense of old 

6005
05:31:41,300 --> 05:31:43,700
optimism. 
Believe that fate May yet 

6006
05:31:43,700 --> 05:31:47,600
surprise him, he prioritized, 
personal interactions developing

6007
05:31:47,600 --> 05:31:49,200
friendships with Progressive 
Minds. 

6008
05:31:49,200 --> 05:31:52,500
In the community, these included
academics, voting rights 

6009
05:31:52,500 --> 05:31:56,400
activists and women's rights 
pioneers Some thought it strange

6010
05:31:56,400 --> 05:31:59,300
that the former conspirator 
mixed with them but Burr 

6011
05:31:59,300 --> 05:32:01,800
relished, having robust debate 
about social changes. 

6012
05:32:01,800 --> 05:32:05,400
He was the father who advocated 
for theodosius Education, 

6013
05:32:05,400 --> 05:32:09,700
feeling Society, undervalued, 
women's contributions years 

6014
05:32:09,700 --> 05:32:12,400
passed, and birwood, 
occasionally fly Upstate for 

6015
05:32:12,400 --> 05:32:15,800
work or to see friends. 
The Eerie canals development in 

6016
05:32:15,800 --> 05:32:18,900
the 1820s, demonstrated. 
New York's commercial 

6017
05:32:18,900 --> 05:32:22,100
advancement. 
Placing him behind younger 

6018
05:32:22,100 --> 05:32:25,300
politicians such as Dewitt 
Clinton emerged as the city's 

6019
05:32:25,300 --> 05:32:27,800
lights overshadowing Burrs 
Legacy. 

6020
05:32:28,500 --> 05:32:31,100
He walked by the new Canal, 
locks surveying the mass of 

6021
05:32:31,100 --> 05:32:34,100
workers and business. 
People privately realizing that 

6022
05:32:34,100 --> 05:32:36,300
these infrastructure 
accomplishments to find a 

6023
05:32:36,300 --> 05:32:38,500
future, he had aspired to 
influence as a politician. 

6024
05:32:39,500 --> 05:32:42,600
He was consistently unable to 
establish Financial stability, 

6025
05:32:42,600 --> 05:32:47,100
debts accumulated, forcing Burr,
to seek clients relentlessly, 

6026
05:32:47,100 --> 05:32:51,200
his previously raw Charisma had 
faded, but in brief contacts 

6027
05:32:51,200 --> 05:32:54,500
with clients or local clerks 
that disarming aspects still 

6028
05:32:54,500 --> 05:32:58,000
flared. 
He did not marry again, rumors 

6029
05:32:58,000 --> 05:33:02,000
of covert liaison circulated, 
but none of old into a bond that

6030
05:33:02,000 --> 05:33:04,100
matched the dose unwavering 
loyalty. 

6031
05:33:05,500 --> 05:33:08,800
Her told a close friend that he 
felt older than his years as if 

6032
05:33:08,808 --> 05:33:11,300
the birds of Scandal. 
Exile and heart. 

6033
05:33:11,300 --> 05:33:16,000
Take it aged him prematurely. 
Buried Eliza Jubilee in 1833. 

6034
05:33:16,000 --> 05:33:19,600
A wealthy Widow who was thought 
to be America's richest, late, 

6035
05:33:19,600 --> 05:33:24,000
80 observers suggested that it 
was a convenient marriage with 

6036
05:33:24,000 --> 05:33:26,900
both Partners pursuing Financial
or social advantage. 

6037
05:33:27,600 --> 05:33:30,800
The union rapidly became 
contentious jumeau. 

6038
05:33:30,800 --> 05:33:34,100
Expressed concern about Burr's, 
excessive spending and his 

6039
05:33:34,100 --> 05:33:37,100
possible grandiosity. 
They split up within a year 

6040
05:33:37,108 --> 05:33:39,200
resulting in a contentious 
divorce. 

6041
05:33:39,200 --> 05:33:41,000
That harmed his Public Image 
even further. 

6042
05:33:41,900 --> 05:33:46,100
The Fiasco demonstrated herbs 
personal life long concealed by 

6043
05:33:46,100 --> 05:33:49,500
the political issues had created
new torque with no true 

6044
05:33:49,500 --> 05:33:51,900
atonement. 
The national stage had 

6045
05:33:51,900 --> 05:33:54,300
progressed. 
Andrew Jackson was a populist 

6046
05:33:54,300 --> 05:33:57,600
president who frequently cited 
the founders but rarely 

6047
05:33:57,600 --> 05:34:00,000
recognized Burr. 
John Quincy Adams. 

6048
05:34:00,000 --> 05:34:02,400
Henry, Clay. 
And Daniel Webster was 

6049
05:34:02,400 --> 05:34:05,000
significant contributors in 
shaping policy regarding the 

6050
05:34:05,000 --> 05:34:07,600
bank of the United States 
tariffs and Westwood 

6051
05:34:07,600 --> 05:34:10,400
development. 
There's era of duels and 

6052
05:34:10,400 --> 05:34:14,000
conspiracies appeared Antiquated
in an America and thrall, buy 

6053
05:34:14,000 --> 05:34:16,300
New Frontiers and industrial 
expansion. 

6054
05:34:17,200 --> 05:34:20,000
He read articles about invention
such as the reaper and cotton 

6055
05:34:20,000 --> 05:34:23,400
gin recognizing that the country
was headed toward a future in 

6056
05:34:23,400 --> 05:34:26,200
which in his personal political 
style would be less important. 

6057
05:34:27,200 --> 05:34:30,000
By the mid-1830s. 
Burr's Health had deteriorated 

6058
05:34:30,000 --> 05:34:34,800
time had worn him down in each. 
Winter brought merciless cold. 

6059
05:34:34,800 --> 05:34:37,100
He carried on with his everyday 
responsibilities. 

6060
05:34:37,100 --> 05:34:41,200
The old spark was mostly lost. 
He took solace in Reading 

6061
05:34:41,200 --> 05:34:44,500
classic from his Princeton days.
Occasionally making notes in the

6062
05:34:44,500 --> 05:34:49,000
margins about Powers Illusions 
or Destiny's Frailty. a few 

6063
05:34:49,008 --> 05:34:52,200
visitors drawn to his memories 
of the founding era found him 

6064
05:34:52,200 --> 05:34:55,900
open but curiously distant You 
can now say Hamilton's name 

6065
05:34:55,900 --> 05:34:59,100
without venom, as if recalling a
tragedy, he hardly remembers 

6066
05:34:59,100 --> 05:35:02,900
Aaron Burr. 
Had a stroke in 1836, he was 

6067
05:35:02,900 --> 05:35:05,600
crippled on one side and 
confined to a boarding home on 

6068
05:35:05,600 --> 05:35:08,200
Staten Island. 
His youth was full of promise 

6069
05:35:08,200 --> 05:35:11,400
and his middle years. 
Caused National turmoil in brief

6070
05:35:11,400 --> 05:35:13,600
periods of awareness. 
He displayed me. 

6071
05:35:13,600 --> 05:35:17,000
The sorrow nor Contrition. 
Only a stoic acceptance of 

6072
05:35:17,000 --> 05:35:20,000
Fates. 
Will he died on September 14th, 

6073
05:35:20,000 --> 05:35:24,700
1836 at the age of 80? 
The event hardly warranted front

6074
05:35:24,700 --> 05:35:27,700
page coverage. 
America was obsessed with 

6075
05:35:27,700 --> 05:35:31,500
economic debates, scarcely, 
commemorating the death of one 

6076
05:35:31,500 --> 05:35:33,200
of its most divisive early 
leaders. 

6077
05:35:34,000 --> 05:35:36,500
First death was announced to 
those who cherished his memory. 

6078
05:35:37,400 --> 05:35:40,300
Several tributes praised. 
His intelligence in the 

6079
05:35:40,300 --> 05:35:42,600
revolution and advocacy for 
women's education. 

6080
05:35:43,700 --> 05:35:46,100
There were numerous references 
to Hamilton's Jewel, and the 

6081
05:35:46,100 --> 05:35:49,500
trees and trial relatives plan 
to quiet burial, but turn out 

6082
05:35:49,500 --> 05:35:53,000
was sparse, overshadowed by the 
bustling City that had moved on.

6083
05:35:53,800 --> 05:35:56,900
The form of Vice President 
quietly fled the stage, leaving 

6084
05:35:56,900 --> 05:36:00,200
a legacy marked by Scandal 
brilliant's and suspicions about

6085
05:36:00,200 --> 05:36:04,100
squandered opportunities. 
Long after Aaron Burr's death, 

6086
05:36:04,100 --> 05:36:07,600
his story continued to cast a 
conflicting Shadow over American

6087
05:36:07,600 --> 05:36:09,800
memory. 
On the one hand, he was a 

6088
05:36:09,800 --> 05:36:12,500
revolutionary war hero, who 
fought alongside the Patriot's 

6089
05:36:12,500 --> 05:36:16,400
to achieve independence, He was 
also a progressive lawyer among 

6090
05:36:16,400 --> 05:36:19,800
the first advocate for expanded 
roles for women, particularly in

6091
05:36:19,800 --> 05:36:22,800
education. 
However, the infamous episodes 

6092
05:36:22,800 --> 05:36:26,100
like the deadly duel with 
Alexander Hamilton the treason 

6093
05:36:26,100 --> 05:36:29,300
trial and the questionable 
Frontier deals overshadowed. 

6094
05:36:29,300 --> 05:36:32,700
These virtues each generation 
that reviewed, Burr's life, 

6095
05:36:32,700 --> 05:36:36,200
discovered a new perspective, 
transforming him into everything

6096
05:36:36,200 --> 05:36:39,400
from a sad. 
Anti-hero to a cautionary tale 

6097
05:36:39,400 --> 05:36:42,500
of uncontrolled ambition. 
Throughout the 19th century 

6098
05:36:42,500 --> 05:36:46,300
historians rejected by as the 
man who assassinated Hamilton 

6099
05:36:46,300 --> 05:36:50,000
and unforgivable deed in a 
Pantheon that extolled the 

6100
05:36:50,000 --> 05:36:54,200
founding Generations genius. 
Hamilton Stars post humorously, 

6101
05:36:54,200 --> 05:36:57,900
while birth felmore into 
contempt, rivalries over 

6102
05:36:57,900 --> 05:37:01,400
economic measures such as the 
National Bank faded in 

6103
05:37:01,400 --> 05:37:05,300
importance, but the Allure of 
human conflict, persisted in in 

6104
05:37:05,300 --> 05:37:08,500
a popular culture. 
Dueling had already lost Social 

6105
05:37:08,500 --> 05:37:12,700
acceptance making Burr appear. 
Antiquated schoolchildren were 

6106
05:37:12,700 --> 05:37:16,100
taught simplified version. 
Hamilton, the noble statement 

6107
05:37:16,100 --> 05:37:18,600
succumbed to the dishonest 
opportunist. 

6108
05:37:18,600 --> 05:37:22,100
However, some contrarian 
thinkers discovered complexities

6109
05:37:22,100 --> 05:37:25,000
in Burr's record. 
They emphasized that he was 

6110
05:37:25,000 --> 05:37:27,700
among the first politicians to 
use modern campaign 

6111
05:37:27,700 --> 05:37:31,500
organization, strategies 
garnering, Grassroots support 

6112
05:37:31,500 --> 05:37:33,500
rather than relying solely on 
Elites. 

6113
05:37:33,900 --> 05:37:36,300
They pointed out that Burr's 
efforts to ensure Equitable, 

6114
05:37:36,300 --> 05:37:39,300
education for his daughter, 
Theodosia demonstrated 

6115
05:37:39,300 --> 05:37:43,400
Progressive tendencies. 
The question persisted, How 

6116
05:37:43,400 --> 05:37:46,000
could a man with such promise 
become so despised? 

6117
05:37:46,700 --> 05:37:49,300
these questions prompted, a 
reevaluation of the founding 

6118
05:37:49,300 --> 05:37:52,400
period revealing that the 
distinctions between hero and 

6119
05:37:52,400 --> 05:37:56,600
villain were never as clear as 
textbooks suggested In the early

6120
05:37:56,600 --> 05:37:59,700
20th century authors and 
dramatists discovered, a 

6121
05:37:59,700 --> 05:38:03,100
treasure Trove in Burr's life, 
the romance with Theodosia 

6122
05:38:03,100 --> 05:38:06,900
mother the agony of theodosius 
disappearance and the Cloak and 

6123
05:38:06,900 --> 05:38:08,200
Dagger atmosphere of the 
purported. 

6124
05:38:08,200 --> 05:38:11,900
South-Western conspiracy 
fictional Works depicted a 

6125
05:38:11,900 --> 05:38:14,600
broken Soul who hated by 
Jefferson and maligned by 

6126
05:38:14,600 --> 05:38:18,400
Hamilton went to desperate 
lengths to save an epic Destiny,

6127
05:38:18,400 --> 05:38:22,300
audiences absorb these stories, 
partially realizing they were 

6128
05:38:22,300 --> 05:38:24,000
reading gossip rather than 
history. 

6129
05:38:24,800 --> 05:38:28,300
Meanwhile academic historians 
are massed, additional evidence 

6130
05:38:28,300 --> 05:38:31,800
from archives portraying Burr, 
as neither completely Wicked nor

6131
05:38:31,800 --> 05:38:35,300
wholly, misunderstood just 
extremely ambitious in an era of

6132
05:38:35,300 --> 05:38:38,800
unbreakable connections. 
Then came increased attention in

6133
05:38:38,800 --> 05:38:42,500
the 20th century as historian 
shifted their focus to the roles

6134
05:38:42,500 --> 05:38:44,800
that the individuals performed 
outside of traditional 

6135
05:38:44,800 --> 05:38:48,100
narratives Buzz covert promotion
of women's education. 

6136
05:38:48,100 --> 05:38:51,900
Drew more notice researchers 
investigated correspondence 

6137
05:38:51,900 --> 05:38:55,700
between Burr and his daughter. 
Discovering emotional depth and 

6138
05:38:55,700 --> 05:38:58,700
intellectual Synergy that was 
unusual for that paternal time. 

6139
05:38:59,400 --> 05:39:02,000
These glimpses complicated, the 
typical condemnation. 

6140
05:39:02,700 --> 05:39:05,500
Some researchers argued that 
bears notion of personal dignity

6141
05:39:05,500 --> 05:39:09,100
was more associated with old 
world aristocratic Traditions 

6142
05:39:09,100 --> 05:39:11,400
contradicting. 
The emerging American 

6143
05:39:11,400 --> 05:39:13,600
expectation of free moral 
democracy. 

6144
05:39:13,600 --> 05:39:16,800
This encounter could have fueled
the Hamilton duel and the 

6145
05:39:16,808 --> 05:39:21,100
eventual disaster. 
For modern viewers, perhaps the 

6146
05:39:21,100 --> 05:39:24,100
most compelling aspect of birth 
story is the conflict between 

6147
05:39:24,100 --> 05:39:26,500
personal ambition and National 
Unity. 

6148
05:39:26,500 --> 05:39:30,400
He rose to the position of vice 
president, only to let hatred 

6149
05:39:30,400 --> 05:39:34,200
drive him to a fatal encounter. 
He saw it again in visioning, 

6150
05:39:34,200 --> 05:39:38,000
New Horizons, in the south west,
only to fall into a maze of 

6151
05:39:38,000 --> 05:39:40,600
accused treason. 
The recurring theme is 

6152
05:39:40,600 --> 05:39:43,600
self-sabotage. 
The gifted Mind undermined by 

6153
05:39:43,608 --> 05:39:47,200
circumstance and personality 
that dynamic resonates in an 

6154
05:39:47,200 --> 05:39:50,600
America still played by figures 
who crossed moral boundaries and

6155
05:39:50,600 --> 05:39:54,900
pursuit of personal goals. 
In historical memory, burst 

6156
05:39:54,900 --> 05:39:57,400
stands Out Among the founders 
George Washington. 

6157
05:39:57,400 --> 05:40:01,000
John Adams, Thomas. 
Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton

6158
05:40:01,000 --> 05:40:03,700
are honored with monuments and 
coinage. 

6159
05:40:04,500 --> 05:40:08,600
Both physical memorials are 
limited and occasional plaque, a

6160
05:40:08,600 --> 05:40:10,200
brief remark. 
In an old churchyard. 

6161
05:40:10,200 --> 05:40:13,700
Nonetheless, his ghost lingers 
in the shadows of the founding 

6162
05:40:13,700 --> 05:40:16,200
story. 
Telling us that the line between

6163
05:40:16,200 --> 05:40:19,900
Brilliance and destruction 
loyalty and betrayal can be 

6164
05:40:19,908 --> 05:40:23,200
unsettlingly narrow. 
The story also highlights how 

6165
05:40:23,200 --> 05:40:26,100
personal grievances can impact 
political outcomes in an era. 

6166
05:40:26,100 --> 05:40:28,400
When the limits are Republican, 
rule are still being tested. 

6167
05:40:29,400 --> 05:40:32,800
Finally Buzz biography leads us 
to consider the complexity of 

6168
05:40:32,800 --> 05:40:34,800
ambition. 
He contributed to the 

6169
05:40:34,808 --> 05:40:37,600
revolution, championed 
revolutionary ideas about 

6170
05:40:37,600 --> 05:40:41,400
women's duties and advocated for
new types of political strategy.

6171
05:40:41,400 --> 05:40:46,200
The Killing Bullet at wehawken, 
however, overshadows all else as

6172
05:40:46,200 --> 05:40:48,000
do. 
The conspiratorial rumors that 

6173
05:40:48,000 --> 05:40:52,300
landed him in a treason trial 
This time passes readers May 

6174
05:40:52,300 --> 05:40:54,400
Ponder where the Burr was. 
Merely ahead of his time in 

6175
05:40:54,400 --> 05:40:57,700
terms of moral judgements, or if
you was a cautionary character, 

6176
05:40:57,700 --> 05:41:00,000
whose appetites and instincts 
led him wrong. 

6177
05:41:00,900 --> 05:41:05,200
Whatever the outcome, one fact 
remains Aaron bodies, the 

6178
05:41:05,200 --> 05:41:09,000
turbulent Junction of personal 
ambition and a maturing American

6179
05:41:09,000 --> 05:41:11,800
Republic. 
His biography tinged with 

6180
05:41:11,800 --> 05:41:14,900
brilliant and tormented with 
sorrow, has us wondering about 

6181
05:41:14,900 --> 05:41:18,000
his exact place in the tapestry 
of the nation's Foundation era.