Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid, Part 1

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Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, A production of iHeartRadio. Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson and I'm Holly Frye. Recently, we did an episode on Tayfield Steinlan, who was an artist, and we talked about his connections to anarchists and anarchist groups in France, And after that discussion, I wanted to return to the topic of anarchism because we have talked about anarchists on the show before, but we've not really talked about anarchism as a philosophy a lot of the time. It's like we were talking about labor organizers who were also anarchists, or fears of anarchy that we're driving things like the First Red Scare and some of the CIA's co intel pros, Like we haven't really talked about when people were talking about anarchy, what did they mean beyond a very dictionary level definition of believing that governments and sometimes also other systems of authority are harmful and should be abolished. So Pyotr Kerpotkin, who is called Peter pretty universally in English language writing, was incredibly influential in the development of anarchism as a political philosophy in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This was especially true in the UK and Russia, but also in France, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United States. And he was also a scientist and a prince, and I just find him deeply fascinating. Unlike a lot of our two parters, I had a feeling from the beginning that this might need more than one episode. Kerpotkin's most famous work, which is sometimes described as his masterpiece, was Mutual Aid A Factor of Evolution. This is really a word of zoology and anthropology, but it is also considered to be a foundational text of anarchist communism. So today we are going to focus on a series of formative moments in Krapotkin's early life that contributed to him becoming an anarchist communist, and then on Wednesday we will take a closer look at his work as an anarchist, including this book. Prince Pyotr Alexeyevitch Krapotkin was born on December twenty first, eighteen forty two, or December ninth in the Old style calendar, in Moscow. He was the son of Prince Alexei Petrovitch Krabatkin and Yakarina Nikoleevya Sulima. Peter's father was a military officer and the family was ancient, aristocratic and rich. Peter grew up surrounded by opulence, with a continual stream of very prominent guests being entertained in their homes, including one in Moscow for the winter and another in the country for the summer, and lavish parties and festivals. But outside all of those guests and events, he described their day to day existence as one of a quote miserly economy. In Kropotkin's words, quote wealth was measured in those times by the number of souls which a landed proprietor owned. So many souls meant so many male serfs. Women did not count. My father, who owned nearly twelve hundred souls in three different provinces, and who had, in addition to his peasants holdings, large tracts of land which were cultivated by these peasants, was accounted a rich man. He lived up to his reputation, which meant that his house was open to any number of visitors, and that he kept a very large household. We were a family of eight, occasionally of ten or twelve, but fifty servants at Moscow and half as many more in the country were considered not one too many. Four coachmen to attend, a dozen horses, three cooks for the masters and two more for the servants, a dozen men to wait upon us at dinner time, one man plate in hand standing behind each person seated at the table, and girls innumerable in the maid servants room. How could anyone do with less than this? Those serfs were the source of most of the food and provisions that were required to maintain such a large household. Every year, around the start of winter, based on his father's orders, peasant sledges would arrive loaded up with the serfs required contributions of grain, meat, and other provisions from what they had been able to grow and raise. Kerpotkin also remarked that the ideal for wealthy landowners was to produce everything they could need or want on their own land by their own men, including the embroideries, the harnesses, the furniture, everything. Quote. As soon as the children of the servants attained the age of ten, they were sent as apprentices to the fashionable shops, where they were obliged to spend five or seven years, chiefly in sweeping, in receiving an incredible number of thrashings, and in running about town on errands of all sort. I must own that few of them became masters of their respective arts. The tailors and the shoemakers were found only skillful enough to make clothes or shoes for the servants, and when a really good pastry was required for a dinner party, it was ordered at Tremblaze while our own confectioner was beating the drum in the music band. In April of eighteen forty six, when Peter was three, his mother died of tuberculosis. She was thirty five. Peter's oldest siblings had already gone away to school, and this left him and his four year old brother, Alexander, in the care of nurses. Their father remarried two years later, and afterward the family moved to a new house. This was very hard for the boys. Their new house was stripped of any kind of connection to their late mother, and one of the nurses who had cared for them after her death also was not retained at the new house when they moved. Peter and Alexander's education started with being tutored at home and punished with a birch rod when they misbehaved. Peter also witnessed his father's cruelty to the serfs, shouting at them using abusive language and sending them to the police with a note that they needed to be given one hundred lashes. In Kerpotkin's words, quote terror and absolute mutinous reign in the house. Yet father was not among the worst of the landowners. On the contrary, the servants and the peasants considered him one of the best. What we saw in our house was going on everywhere, often in much more cruel forms. The flogging of the was a regular part of the duties of the police and of the fire brigade. Krapakin also wrote that his father would order marriages between specific serfs, and that the serfs worked out a way to try to protect themselves from this. If it seemed like they were being identified for a potential marriage, the two people in question would become godmother and godfather to the same child, which, according to Kropotkin's memoir, made a marriage between them illegal under church law. Once a tailor who belonged to Kropotkin's father fell in love with a girl who belonged to a neighbor. This man hoped to be freed and to earn enough money as a tailor to pay for his freedom and that of the woman he hoped to marry. He and another serf from the Krapotkin estate became godparents to the same child when it seemed like they might be forced to marry instead, when Kropotkin's father ordered the marriage and the man explained that they were godparents and how he hoped to be reed and to marry another woman, he was instead forced to join the military. So all of this sounds cruel and dehumanizing, but what krapot Can heard about from other estates could be even worse. Quote if I were to relate what I heard of in those years, it would be a much more gruesome narrative. Stories of men and women torn from their families and their villages and sold or lost in gambling, or exchanged for a couple of hunting dogs and then transported to some remote part of Russia for the sake of creating a new estate. Of children taking from their parents and sold to cruel or dissolate masters of flogging in the stables, which occurred every day with unheard of cruelty of a girl who found her only salvation in drowning herself, of an old man who had grown gray haired in his master's service, and at last hanged himself under his master's window. And of revolts of which were suppressed by Nicholas the first generals by flogging to death each tenth or fifth man taken out of the ranks, and by laying waste the village whose inhabitants, after a military execution, went begging for bread in the neighboring provinces, as if they had been the victims of a conflagration. As to the poverty which I saw during our journeys in certain villages, especially in those which belonged to the Imperial family, no words would be adequate to describe the misery to readers who have not seen it. In eighteen fifty four, when Peter was twelve, his French tutor, Monsieur Poulains, started telling him stories about the French Revolution, including about aristocrats who gave up their titles and sided with the revolutionaries. Peter was becoming more aware of the inequities of the world he was living in, including the enslavement of the serfs in the way that they were treated, and he decided to do the same, abandoning his title of pres and instead styling his signature just as p. Kropotkin. Yeah, that title was apparently something that they just used routinely, even at home, in private, all the time. Uh. Before he was like, Nope, I'm not doing that anymore. By this point, Zar Nicholas the First had selected Peter for the elite Core of Pages. That happened when Peter was only eight, but he had to wait for a vacancy before he could actually join the Core. There was not a spot open for him until he was fifteen, and by that point Nicholas the First was no longer the czar. He died in eighteen fifty five and was succeeded by Alexander the Second. In the meantime, Peter had continued to be educated at home and then at a Moscow gymnasium. He also started his own literary review, which included his writings and his brother's poetry, and he kept that up until leaving for the Core that included keep it up after his brother Alexander went off to military school. We will get to Peter's time at the Core of Pages and Alexander the Second's impact on Russia. After a sponsor break in August of eighteen fifty seven, Peter Kropotkin joined the Core of Pages in Saint Petersburg. He described the Core this way quote. Only one hundred and fifty boys, mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court, received education in this privileged corps, which combined the character of a military school endowed with special rights and of a court institution attached to the imperial household. After a stay of four or five years in the Core of Pages, those who had passed the final examinations were received as officers in any regiment of the Guard or of the Art they chose irrespective of the number of vacancies in that regiment, And each year the first sixteen pupils of the highest form were nominated pages to Chambre, that is, they were personally attached to the several members of the Imperial family, the Emperor, the Empress, the Grand Duchesses and the Grand Dukes. Kropotkin had hoped to finish his education there in four years, but he was sorted into the fifth form that was the lowest, and he was sorted there because he needed some additional study in math. At first, he was really disappointed by this, but it did work out. Aside from the math, most of the rest of his courses in this first year covered material that he already knew. Quote. I got into the habit of learning my lessons by merely listening to what the teachers said in the classroom, and the lessons over I had plenty of time to read and to write to my heart's content. I never prepared for the examinations, and used to spend the time which was allowed for that in reading aloud to a few friends the dramas of Shakespeare or of Ostrowski. When I reached the higher special forms, I was also better prepared to master the variety of subjects we had to study. At various points in his memoir, which is what we have been reading from, Krapotkin just casually drops things about his life that seem like maybe they should have been more major details. Immediately after this, he wrote quote, Besides, I spent more than half of the first winter in the hospital. Like all children who were not born at Saint Petersburg, I had to pay a heavy tribute to the capital on the swamps of Finland in the shape of several attacks of local cholera and finally one of typhoid fever. Kropotkin's education was focused largely on mathematics, physics, and astronomy, although he also enjoyed history, poetry and music. As he moved into more advanced coursework, he continued to focus on math because he thought it was critical to an understanding of any of the sciences. After two or three years in the Corps, he also started writing his first revolutionary essay, in which he criticized corruption and waste and advocated for the creation of a constitution for Russia. So Peter had been personally selected by the Czar to go to a military school that was attached to the Imperial household, which would prepare him to be an officer in the Russian military, and now he was spending some of his time at that school writing essays criticizing the government and calling for a constitution. This was definitely risky, and that is something that the two or three like minded students that he gave this essay to pointed out to him. But this was also right at the beginning of a period of sweeping changes in Russia. Implemented by Alexander the Second, who wanted to institute some of the liberal reforms that had been seen in part of Western Europe in the early years of his reign. Alexander reformed the judiciary, making it a separate branch of government and banning secret trials and corporal punishment. He decentralized some of Russia's political power structure, putting some of that power in the hands of local governments. He reformed the military so compulsory service applied across all of the social classes rather than only to the serfs. He also relaxed censorship guidelines, which contributed to a rise in populist and revolutionary organizations in Russia. On March third, eighteen sixty one, Alexander also issued his Emancipation Manifesto, which set February nineteenth, eighteen sixty three, as the day that the serfs would be free. Kropotkin wrote of reading the Manifesto over and over after it was issued. Quote, it was liberty, but it was not liberty yet, the peasants having to remain serfs for two years more till February nineteenth, eighteen sixty three. Notwithstanding all this, one thing was evident serfdom was abolished and the liberated serfs would get the land and their homesteads. They would have to pay for it, but the old stain of slavery was removed. They would be slaves no more. Kropotkins celebrated the liberation of the serfs, but also described the costs involved with paying for their land as simultaneously ruinous for them and extremely lucrative for the landlords, who also got compensation for the property they were losing. Serfs who had done household work also faced a different problem. They were free, but they were offered no land and no other compensation. Many of them left the households they had been working in to find other work because they had no offer of paid employment and no other options. This also wasn't something Alexander had done out of purely humanitarian impulse. There had been more than seven hundred peasant uprisings across Russia in the twenty five years before he became czar. He wanted to get rid of a potential source of disruption to the Russian economy. Yeah, writing about all this from the US perspective today, a lot of the time will draw parallels to the abolition of slavery in the United States, and how many freed people then were trapped into a system of sharecropping in which they were not enslaved anymore technically, but they were still doing in the same work, still in really dehumanizing conditions, and then just sort of trapped in a system that they still couldn't get out of. And Kerpotkin recognized these things as also being true with the liberation of the serfs in Russia. He had been a very good student and was often at the top of his form at the Core of Pages, and in June of eighteen sixty one he was nominated to be sergeant, the privileged position at the school. He essentially became an officer over the other students, and in addition to that, he also served as page to Chambre for the Emperor, so he was essentially the Tsar's personal page. This was definitely an honor and it had the potential to really set the stage for the trajectory of his life after finishing his education at the Core. In Krapotkin's words quote at the beginning of my service, I felt a great admiration for Alexander the Second, the liberator of the serfs, imagination often carries a boy beyond the realities of the moment, and my frame of mind at that time was such that if an attempt had been made in my presence upon the Czar, I should have covered him with my body. But as time went on, he said, quote, various small incidents, as well as the reactionary character which the policy of Alexander the second was decidedly taking, instilled more and more doubts into my heart. One source of those doubts was the suppression of unrest at universities in Russia after authorities abolished scholarships and reversed earlier progressive reforms. In May of eighteen sixty two, as his graduation was approaching, Kerpotkin was asked what regiments he would be interested in joining. He didn't really want to join a regiment at all. His dream was to go to university, but he knew that his father would never agree to that, so he asked to be sent to Siberia. Russia had annexed the Amur region in the southeast of Siberia on the border with China in eighteen fifty eight. Kerpotkin thought that in this part of Siberia there would be quote an immense field for the application of the great reforms which have been made or are coming. The workers must be few there, and I shall find a field of action to my tastes. To Kropotkin, this was an opportunity to bring change to Siberia and to make a difference. But of course to everyone else, the Tsar's personal page and one of the top students in the Core, was asking to be sent to a place where people were normally exiled. As a punishment, they questioned whether he was in his right mind. His father refused to allow it. That spring fires broke out in Saint Petersburg, and they burned for about two weeks. These fires spread primarily because of unusually warm, dry weather, but there were rumors that they had been intentionally set by radicals, or maybe students, or maybe people from Poland, much of which had been annexed by Russia at the end of the eighteenth century. These suspicions led to arrests and crackdowns and rollbacks of earlier reforms, and Kerpotkin's words quote after it, Alexander the Second surrendered to the reactionaries, and what was still worse, the public opinion of that part of society in Saint Petersburg and especially at Moscow, which carried most weight with the government, suddenly threw off its liberal garb and turned against not only the more advanced section of the Reform Party, but even against its moderate wing. Krepakin became even more determined to leave Western Russia and to go somewhere that might be more open to reforms. Kropotkin and some of his classmates helped fight the fires one night, and the next day he accompanied a Grand Duke on his rounds. Kropotkin told him about his desire to go to Siberia, and the Grand Duke said he would recommend Kropotkin to the Governor General to make sure he wasn't posted to a tiny, remote village somewhere. This apparently reconciled Kropotkin's father to his going. We'll talk about what happened to Kerpotkin in Siberia after we have a sponsor break. When Peter Krapotkin arrived in East Siberia in eighteen sixty two, the Governor General was Mikhail Korsokov. He was the successor to Count Nikolay mrvyev Amersky, who had negotiated the treaty that had annexed the Amur region from the Qing dynasty he had retired in eighteen sixty one. Before his retirement and now by the time Kerpotkin arrived, these men were interested in reforming and modernizing Siberia. Kirpotkin was appointed to two committees, one to reform Siberia's prisons in its system of exile, and one to bring about municipal self government. He also worked on other projects, and a lot of them were focused on improving the lives and conditions of people in Siberia, but Krapotkin's proposed reforms were never implemented. The rollback and crackdowns that he had witnessed in Saint Petersburg ultimately made their way to Siberia as well, and by the time Krapakin was done with his proposals, they were no longer wanted. He wrote, quote I soon realized the absolute impossibility of doing anything really useful for the masses of the people by means of the administrative machinery. With this illusion, I parted forever beyond that, Potkin called the five years he spent in Siberia, which did include some trips back home quote A genuine education in life and human character. I was brought into contact with men of all descriptions, the best and the worst, those who stood at the top of society, and those who vegetated at the very bottom, the tramps and the so called incorrigible criminals. I had ample opportunities to watch the ways and habits of the peasants in their daily life, and still more opportunities to appreciate how little the state administration could give to them, even if I were animated by the very best intentions. Finally, my extensive journeys, during which I traveled over fifty thousand miles in carts, on board, steamers, and boats, but chiefly on horseback, had a wonderful effect in strengthening my health. They also taught me how little man really needs. As soon as he comes out of the enchanted circle of conventional civilization, with a few pounds of bread and a few ounces of tea in a leather bag, a kettle and a hatchet hanging at the side of the saddle, and under the saddle a blanket to be spread at the campfire upon a bed of freshly cut spruce twigs, a man feels wonderfully independent even amidst unknown mountains thickly clothed with woods or capped with snow. All of this had a huge impact on Kropotkin as both a scientist and a political philosopher. During those fifty thousand miles of travel, he did a lot of military work, and he also studied the geography of northern Asia. He realized that most of the maps that were in use showed huge mountains that weren't really there. He started cross referencing his own observations with those of other researchers and travelers and anything else he could find to create a map of the landscape in its structure that actually aligned with reality. His conclusion was that much of Siberia was an elevated plateau, not a lowland plane as it had previously been understood. Sometimes this is summed up as Peter Kropotkin discovered the plateau, which is like a little oversimplified. It oversimplifies in a way that obfuscates the reality. Right. He said of this realization and sort of the process of coming to this realization quote, there are not many joys in human life equal to the joy of the sudden birth of a generalization illuminating the mind. After a long period of patient research, what has seemed for years so chaotic, so contradictory, and so problematic, takes at once its proper position, with nharmonious whole. Out of the wild confusion of facts, and from behind the fog of guesses contradicted. Almost as soon as they are born, a stately picture makes its appearance, like an alpine chain, suddenly emerging in all its grandeur from the mists which concealed it the moment before, glittering under the rays of the sun, in all its simplicity and variety, in all its mightiness and beauty. Grapodkin described his study of the geography of Northern Asia and the work he created from it, to be his greatest contribution to science, although he didn't get to do everything he wanted with it due to going to prison, which we will be getting to in the next episode. He also served as secretary of the Russian Geographical Society in its section on physical geography. In terms of his political philosophy, as one example, the January Uprising began in early eighteen sixty three. This was an uprising against Russian imperial rule in Poland. The uprising failed and led to even tighter imperial control over Poland. During its travels, Kerpotkin often met and spoke with Polish exiles about what had happened, and his words quote, some of them understood the fault that had been committed. A revolution from its very outset must be an act of justice towards the downtrodden and oppressed, not a promise of making such reparation later on. Otherwise it is sure to fail. Unfortunately, it often happens that the leaders are so much absorbed with mere questions of military tax that they forget the main thing to be revolutionists, and failed to prove to the masses that a new era has really begun for them is to ensure the certain ruin of the attempt. Kropotkin also described this uprising as a definitively ending that period of reform in Russia. Krapatkin's brother Alexander joined him in Siberia in eighteen sixty four, and in eighteen sixty seven they both decided to leave military service. One reason was that they were called on to put down an insurrection. Alexander had gotten married in Siberia, so leaving had some additional difficulties for him they went back to Saint Petersburg, where Peter lived with Alexander and his family. Peter also finally enrolled at Saint Petersburg Imperial University. His father was furious. The atmosphere in Saint Petersburg was much different than it had been before Krapotkin went to Siberia. An assassination attempt on Czar Alexander the second and April of eighteen sixty six had led to a crackdown on suspected radicals. Kropotkin thought that there had only been one successful social movement while he had been gone. That was a movement for women's access to higher education, which had succeeded in opening women's universities and a medical school for women in spite of political opposition, including opposition from the Czar. Krapotkin also found this movement and its success to be instructive. He wrote, quote above all, it was through the unlimited devotion of a mass of women in all possible capacities that they gained their successes. In short, women took any position, no matter how low in the social scale, and no matter what privations it involved, if only they could be in any way useful to the people, not a few of them, but hundreds and thousands. They have conquered their rights in the true sense of the word. I did not try to track down whether Kerpotkin's perceptions of this movement were accurate, but like his perceptions and what he found to be instructive or the important part here. He also said that he did not see any division between the older and the younger elements of this movement, even though they often had very different goals and strategies. This included the older women being very focused on respectability and correctness and avoiding political agitation, while a lot of the younger women were nihilists who were also involved with revolutionary or radical organizations. Sometimes there was friction between these two overall groups, but they were all on the same side, and neither of them ever denounced the other or tried to shut them out of the movement. As someone who just sees prepares stual online discourse about various left wing activism, I find that idea so refreshing. He also described the movement's leaders as not feminists. That meant that he did not think they were trying to get a share of the privileged positions and society in the state that were being held only by men, and opening up some of those things up to women, so getting women a share of the privilege they were instead working for the masses. In eighteen seventy one, Krapotkin went on an expedition for the Russian Geographical Society to study glaciers in Finland and Sweden. As he observed dry lake beds there, he had a realization that had parallels to what he had experienced with the Siberian Plateau. He concluded that Scandinavia and Finland had been covered in ice in the distant past. Then quote ages past away till the melting of the ice began, and with it came the lake period, when countless lakes were formed in the cavities, and a wretched subpolar vegetation began timidly to invade the unfathomable marshes with which every lake was surrounded. Another series of ages passed before an extremely slow process of drying upset in and vegetation began its slow invasion from the south. And now we are fully in the period of a rapid desiccation, accompanied by the formation of dry prairies and steps. And Ma'am has to find out the means to put a check to that desication to which Central Asia already has fallen a victim, and which menaces southeastern Europe. This was connected to an ongoing scientific debate about the history of the Earth. You could really have a whole different two parter just about Krapotkin's work as a scientist. So extremely briefly, the European scientific community had long believed that the Earth was largely unchanging. God had created it, and with the exceptions of catastrophes like earthquakes or massive floods, after that creation, things stayed largely the same. The idea of a past ice age and detectable natural changes normal ones that happened over time rather than being brought on by sudden, intense catastrophes. His ideas were both fairly new, and Kirpotkin's work was part of that changing understanding. As with his time in Siberia, Kropotkin's expedition to Finland affected his political philosophy. He saw peasants who were living in poverty, and his first impulse was to tell them about tools and machines that could make their lives better and their work easier. But he realized that trying to talk to them about these kinds of innovations would be absurd and accomplish nothing. Quote, how dare I talk to him of American machines when all that he can raise must be sold to pay rent and taxes. He needs me to live with him, to help him to become the owner or the free occupier of that land. Then he will read books with profit, but not now. In eighteen seventy one, Kerpotkin was offered the position of secretary of the Russian Geographical Society, so not just the section he had been secretary of before, the whole organization, and this was something he really wanted, but he turned it down. He thought he had so much to do in both scientific and political work, and he would not be able to do it if he accepted such a time consuming position. And he said, quote, what right had I to these highest joys when all around me was nothing but misery and struggle for a moldy piece of bread. When whatever I should spend to enable me in that world of higher emotions must needs be taken from the very mouth of those who grew the wheat and had not enough for their children. The same year, Kropotkin's father died. Then in eighteen seventy two he made his first journey to Western Europe. He wanted to learn about the International Workingmen's Association, also known as First International, which was an international coalition of left wing political groups, trade unions, and other organizations that had been banned in Russia. Krapotkin went to Zurich and joined one of the local sections, and then to Geneva, which was at the heart of the movement and had been home to First International's first congress in eighteen sixty six. Kropotkin wrote of First International quote, one must have lived among the workers at that time to realize the effect which the sudden growth of the association had upon their minds, the trust they put in it, the love with which they spoke of it, the sacrifices they made for it. Every day, week after week, and year after year. Thousands of workers gave their time and their coppers, taken upon their very food in order to support the life of each group, to secure the appearance of papers, to defray the expenses of the congresses, to support the comrades who had suffered for the association. Another thing that impressed me deeply was the elevating influence, which the International exercised. Most of the Paris Internationalists wore almost total abstainers from drink, and all had abandoned spoken. Why should I nurture in myself that weakness? They said, the mean that trivial disappeared to leave room for the grand, the elevating inspirations. But after a while Krapotkins started to have doubts about this movement. It seemed like some of its leaders were pulling strings to get what they wanted, or allowing people and organizations to join, even though their intentions weren't genuine, because it seemed expedient in the moment, and he thought there was too much separation between the association's leaders and the workers. When he left Geneva, Krapotkin made his way to the Jura Mountains, on the border between France and Switzerland, where another organization had formed, the Jura Federation, which was established in eighteen seventy two. This federation had grown out of a division within First International. On one side were the Marxists, whose ideas were drawn from German philosopher Karl Marx, and on the other side were the Bacunonists, whose ideas were drawn from Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakunin. Broadly speaking, the Marxists were socialists who advocated for centralized leadership, state rule, and reforms, including massive reforms to existing economic systems, and Bakuninists were anarchists, focused on a total revolution that would dissolve existing social and economic structures and replace them with free communes and other cooperatives. The Jura Federation was anti authoritarian and anarchists. Many of the organizations involved with this federation were voluntary support organizations among watchmakers in the Jura mountains. Krapotkin found these organizations and networks to be very egalitarian and the people involved in them showed a lot of independence of thought. He wrote, quote here, I saw that the workers were not a mass that was being led and made subservient to the political ends of a few men. Their leaders were simply their more active comrades, initiators rather than leaders. The clearness of insight, the soundness of judgment, the capacity for disentangling complex social questions, which I noticed among these workers, especially the middle aged ones, deeply impressed me, and I am firmly persuaded that if the Jura Federal has played a prominent part in the development of socialism. It is not only on account of the importance of the no government and federalist ideas of which it was the champion, but also on account of the expression which was given to these ideas by the good sense of the Jura Watchmakers. Without their aid, these conceptions might have remained mere abstractions for a long time. He went on to say, quote the theoretical aspects of anarchism as they were then beginning to be expressed in the Jura Federation, especially by Bakunin. The criticisms of state socialism, the fear of an economic despotism far more dangerous than the merely political despotism which I heard formulated there, and the revolutionary character of the agitation appealed strongly to my mind. But the egalitarian relations which I found in the Jura Mountains, the independence of thought and expression which I saw developing in the workers, and their unlimit devotion to the cause, appealed even more strongly to my feelings. And when I came away from the mountains after a week's stay with the watchmakers, my views upon socialism were settled. I was an anarchist. Everything we have talked about so far led Kerpotkin to believe that in order to make life better for everyone, society needed to move away from centralized governments and wage labor and capitalist systems, and he understood that doing so would require a revolution, maybe even a civil war. Quote. The question is then not so much how to avoid revolutions as how to attain the greatest results with the most limited amount of civil war, the least number of victims, and a minimum of mutual embitterment. For that end, there is only one means, namely, that the oppressed part of society should obtain the clearest possible conception of what they intend to achieve and how, and that they should be imbued with the enthusiasm which is necessary for that achievement, in which case they will be sure to attract to their cause the best and freshest intellectual forces of the class which is possessed of historically grown up privileges. We are going to talk about what happened after Krapotkin return to Saint Petersburg with all of these ideas next time. In the meantime, Tracy, do you have some listener mail I do. This is from Kathy, and Kathy wrote after our President's House site episode. Kathy wrote, Dear Holly and Tracy. When I heard Philadelphia mentioned in the beginning of yesterday's episode, I remembered I never sent my email about the last Philly episode. I wanted to thank you for your episode about the President's House exhibit. It is a fantastic and important exhibit that I think is so much more interesting than the Liberty Bell exhibit. I've been telling everyone to go to the President's House since I randomly happened upon it about ten years ago. However, many tourists skip the exhibit, even though it's right in front of the Liberty Bell building, because the line to see the Liberty Bell cues up around the exhibit instead of through it. Happily, the executive order to remove the exhibit had the opposite of its intended effect. I happened to pass by on a weekend shortly after the signs were reposted. There were way more people at the exhibit than there usually are in the winter. Also, at the beginning of the Richard Peters episode, I hate to be one of those people who correct you on little details that have nothing to do with the episode, but as a Philadelphia history teacher and nerd, I can't help it. Germantown and Belmont were suburbs of Philadelphia when Peters lived there. Now they are both part of the city proper. Germantown is a neighborhood northwest of Center City, and Belmont is part of Fairmont Park. Both of these areas had safe houses on the underground railroad, which could make for a good episode topic. Thanks for all you do for pet tax, pet taxes, pictures of goldfish, and we have said a number of times that we are open to any kind of pet tax, or even pet tax that is not animals, other kinds of tax so or even pet tax that isn't a pet. Yeah, not even a pet. Goldfish are a great example of that. They are named King Ray and conge as I'm assuming how that is pronounced. They are rancho goldfish and they are all named for the word king in various languages because these are known as king of the goldfish. Sincerely, Kathy, thank you so much for this email. Kathy, I knew there were a lot of folks going to the President's house site to protest and demonstrate and leave signs and notes and things. After all the signs are taken down so I am glad to hear that they're has been continued traffic to the site now that at least some of the signs are backup. I meant to go check if there have been new developments about the signs that had not been put back up yet when we recorded that episode, and I forgot to go look into that. But thank you again Kathy for the email and the pictures. If you would like to send us a note or at History Podcast At iHeartRadio dot com, you can find the show notes to all of our episodes, including this one, which includes all the works of Peter Patkins that we have read from and referenced. That's on our website which is Missed in Hisstory dot com, and you can subscribe to the show on the iHeartRadio app and anywhere else you'd like to get your podcasts. Stuff You Missed in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.