Listener Questions 12: Higgs Bosons, Black holes and earthquakes!

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Speaker 1: Hey, Daniel. People often ask me what is the target range for our podcast in terms of age. I like to think of it like nine years to years old. Wow, that's a big range. Do we really have nine year old listeners? Oh? We do. We even get questions from six year old You know, kids are masters of curiosity? Wow, they have actual masters and curiosity. They're born with it. But it only goes up to ninety nine. What happens if you turn a hundred? Does the audio automatically cut off? I think if you live to be a hundred, we should be asking you question. Maybe should make it nine to nine hundred and ninety nine, just in case, you know, aliens might live longer than us. That's true. I look forward to meeting a thousand year old and I'll let the marketing team know to find some ads suited for nine hundred year old listeners. I hi am jorheamat cartoonist and the creator of PhD comics. Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist, and I wish I had the wisdom of a nine year old, but not the body of a nine year old. Well, maybe the you know, cybernetically enhanced body that would be pretty awesome, yeah, or maybe the wisdom of living inside of a computer for nine years that would probably seem like nine million years. But welcome to our podcast Daniel and Jorge Explained the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio, in which we take you on a tour of all the incredible and crazy and bonker stuff in our universe. We drilled down to the tiny particles to reveal the truth about the universe, and we zoom out to the entire universe to share with you the scope of the scale, the wonder, the drama, the violence, all the incredible things that are out there, the things that we understand and and the things that scientists are still trying to figure out, and the things that you are curious about. That's right. We take it to the forefront of science and human knowledge and talk about questions a lot. We talked about questions that scientists are asking right now and also questions that regular people like those of you listening might be asking yourselves. And sometimes those questions are one and the same exactly, And I think a lot of people don't realize that science is pushed forward by scientists asking their own personal questions, like the reason one scientist ends up in biology or in physics is because those are the questions they personally want answered. And so science really is all about personal questions. What do you want to know about the universe? Are you saying? Scientists are people to scientists by people, for people, and of people. It's all about people wanting to know the answer to some one individual burning question. And you know as well as I do that by the time you get to your PhD, you're so narrowly focused on one tiny little sliver of human knowledge that it has to be Really you're driving curiosity the thing that you want to figure out. That's right. It's your inalienable right to ask if there are aliens out there and to spend your life trying to figure it out. But of course it's not just scientists who are curious. Everybody out there is curious about the universe, especially people listening to this podcast. And so we don't want to just talk about the questions that scientists are asking of the universe. We want to answer your questions as well. Yeah, so to be on the program, we'll be tackling listener questions Number twelve, The dirty doesn't the dark matter doesn't? We have a child's question on the program today, so let's try to keep it clean. I think that I read through the questions Daniel, and I feel like the nine year old question is the most sophisticated one year. I told you children ask amazing questions. You know, just last week we got a letter from a six year old and he asked a long list of really hard particle physics questions that I thought were sophisticated for an adult. Wow. Well, I feel so good knowing that we're helping to educate six year old in bad puns and bad jokes. I feel like you know that kid is getting an early start. His hardest question was how does Jorge manage to eat so many bananas? They're gross? No? I made that one up. Well, we have a lot of amazing questions here from listeners of our program, questions related to dark matter and the Higgs boson and black holes, and also questions about tectonic plates in our planet, which tetonics. That's not a rock group, is it's it's like an actual science thing. No, I think isn't a transformer and or a transformer? Yeah? Good be maybe hold on, maybe it's a rock group of transformers. Do they have bands and transformers. Let me think they had construction vehicles, they had dinosaur transformers. Maybe maybe, yeah, maybe they need a rock band or transformer. Maybe there's could be one transformer that transforms into an electric guitar. Right, Oh man, somebody out there Mattel is scrolling down these ideas, I hope. And also banana. We haven't had fruit transformers either. All right, well, let's jump right into our awesome questions from listeners, and our first question comes from a nine year old Dylan wrote to us but an awesome question about dark about dark matter and the Higgs boson. Nim from London, and my question is could the Higgs boson interact with dark match? Thanks? Wow, that's amazing. That is such a simple question, and yet I feel like it blows my mind at the same time. It is. It's a great question. Yeah, and he's got a wonderful accent, of course, and it's a really deep question. And we're gonna have to talk about a lot of really interesting facets about dark matter and the Higgs boson to unravel this particular one. All right, So Dnon's question was does dark matter interact with the Higgs field and the Higgs boson, and I guess it's one and the same thing. Yeah, I remember that interacting with the Higgs field means essentially exchanging Higgs bosons with stuff, and so you can think about them together. But broadly, remember the Higgs field is the thing that fills the universe. And you can create a Higgs boson if you put enough energy into the Higgs field. That's how we discovered it at certain by smashing particles together and making enough energy in the Higgs field to create a Higgs boson. But you can interact with the Higgs field even if you don't have that much energy around, because you can just exchange virtual Higgs bosons, right, And so, just to recap for people who might not know or our need to the program, the Higgs field is one of the quantum fields that fill the universe, and it's the one that specifically gives us mass, gives the other particles mass. That's exactly right. It's everywhere. Every piece of space we think has a bunch of different quantum fields in it. There are fields for every particle. There's the electron field, their fields for the photon, there's fields for the corks. There's this whole big set of fields, and the Higgs field is the most recently discovered one, and it interacts with other fields, and it interacts in a way that makes particles move differently. It makes particles move as if they had mass, right, Like, if you push in a particle, it might take you a little bit a bit of time before it can accelerate. That's kind of the definition of mass almost. Yeah, and we have two ideas of mass, but here we're talking about inertial mass. Just as you said, it means you have to push a particle to get it going, and you have to pull on it essentially to slow it down. And what he's doing with this question is really interesting because I feel like he's mashing together these two huge concepts that were in separate parts of my brain. And his question is like, are these two things related? Do they interact with each other? And so he asked if the Higgs boson interacts with dark matter, and so just reacap again for folks. Dark matter is this big part of the universe that's out there the nobody knows what it is. Yeah, we discovered in the last few decades that most of the stuff that's in the universe. The matter is not the kind of matter that we're familiar with that makes up me and you and gas and stars and hamsters and bananas. It's this other, weird, invisible kind of matter that we can see only because of it's gravitational effects. It makes galaxies spin faster, it changes the whole structure of the universe. We're really pretty sure it's there. But the thing that's tough about dark matter is that it's really hard to see because it doesn't interact in any way we've detected so far except through gravity. So we're looking for dark matter and we're trying to figure out if there's any way to interact with it. And that's what makes this such a great question. It's like, well, could we use the Higgs boson or the Higgs field somehow to interact with dark matter? Because dark matter doesn't interact with light or electromagnetic forces, so you can't see it and touch it, but it does interact through gravity, which makes you think, like, does dark matter half mass? I guess I never I've never thought about that question, Daniel, Is that true? Does dark matter half mass? Dark matter definitely has mass because it creates gravity. Like that's why we call it matter. It's not dark energy, it's dark matter. It's dark matter because it's some stuff. We know that it's there because the gravity that it generates, and so it has some sort of energy density, some sort of mass that creates that. And our best model currently of dark matter is some slow moving massive particle. So absolutely it makes perfect sense for dark matter to have mass so that it creates gravity. I guess if it dark matter didn't have mass, it would be zipping around at the speed of light, right, that's right. All massless things move at the speed of light, and we know that dark matter is slow. But also if dark matter didn't have mass, it wouldn't create the kind of effects that we see. That is that we see gravitational effects that are out there, these things that hold galaxies together even though they're spinning and change the whole shape and structure of the universe. That means that there's some gravity out there and we can't see the mass that's creating that gravity. And so that's what dark matter is. It's really a description of the missing mass, the mass necessary to create the gravity that we do see. So it's perfectly natural to think that dark matter does have mass, and that's why it's such a great idea to think, oh, maybe we could talk to dark matter through the Higgs boson, because that gives some particles mass, right, And again I guess interacting with gravity is different than interacting with the Higgs field, right, It's not necessarily the same thing. It's not like inertial mass is not the same thing. It's gravitational mass, that's right, And there are different ways to get inertial mass. So there's a few things to disentangle. Their Gravitational mass means you're creating gravity, like I have mass, and you have mass, and the Earth has mass and the Sun has mass. So we each have our own gravitational field or we bend space, which changes the way the things move around us. So that's the force of gravity. It means that you have gravitas. It means you're so important you have an impact on the universe, right, you're not insignificant. So that's one concept that's like, you know, mass as a sort of the charge of gravity. How strong is your gravitational force will? It depends on your mass. Then there's this other concept of mass that we just talked about recently, which is this inertial mass, which is how much force does it take to at you moving. That's the mass that appears in F equals M A relates force and acceleration. You have a really big mass that takes a big force to accelerate you. That's why, for example, even though you have the same gravitational force on the Earth as the Earth does on you, you feel the Earth's gravity much more strongly because your mass is smaller, so you have a larger acceleration for the same force. So inertial mass is this separate concept from gravitational mass. Although numerically everything seems to have exactly the same gravitational and inertial masses, like, we've never measured any discrepancy, right, Yeah, We've talked about that kind of mystery in an early episode about you know, you have inertial mass and you have your gravitational mass, and they seem to be exactly the same, but theoretically and mathematically they don't have to be the same. That's right. The mass that appears in the gravitation formula M doesn't have to be the same mass as the one that appears in F equals M A. But we measure them and they are exactly the same. And that's a whole other fascinating puzzle. We actually talked about that in our fun book, which came about a few years ago. That amazing puzzle. I just think I have no idea what we wrote Danniel in our book, We have no idea. Well that you should read it some time. It's pretty funny. It's partially resolved by general relativity, but it's still a really deep interesting question in physics. But it's also relevant to today's question about whether or not dark matter talks to the Higgs boson, whether you can interact with dark matter using the Higgs boson right, Because I guess, is it possible for something to have a gravitational mass but not inertial mass? Is that even possible? We've never seen that happen, and general relativity suggests that it's probably not possible. There's some weird little threads there to think about, like photons have energy but no mass, and general relativity tells us that space curves in response to energy density, not necessarily mass. But usually those two things are identical, like for every particle, for every object, the inertial mass and the gravitational matter us are one and the same, so we just think of it as the mass. But I guess maybe the point is that we know dark matter has gravitational mass because that's how we see it, and we also know it that has inertial mass, because otherwise it would be zipping around. That's right. We think we know something about the speed of dark matter. We talked on the program before about how if dark matter was really really low mass, but it was very very light, then it would move really fast and that would change the structure of the universe. The universe would be smoother. We think dark matter is slow moving and cold, and that's why we got the structure that we have today that amplified all sorts of little quantum fluctuations in the early universe to be the weird, amazing, beautiful structures in today's universe. So I guess that the point is that we know for sure then the dark matter interacts with the Higgs because it has inertial mass. Not quite. We know that it has inertial mass, but there are other ways to get inertial mass what not through the Higgs, not through the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson is a special trick that we use to get mass to all the particles that we know quarks and leptons, etcetera. And we had to use that trick because all these particles interact with the weak force. Quarks and leptons and even neutrinos, all these particles interact with the weak force, and the weak force is really weird. It doesn't left particles just have a mass that breaks like a special symmetry, a property of the weak force that it likes to protect. And so that's why the Higgs boson is such a clever idea. It's not just like, hey, here's a field. It's a special mathematical trick that lets you interact with these particles in a way that so that they move like they had mass without actually giving them any mass, like deep down. So the Higgs is this way you can give particles mass if they have weak interactions. What because every other particle that we know about has weak interactions. Every matter particle that we know about has weak interactions, that's right, So it falls under this weak symmetry. And so the Higgs was created. Who break this symmetry. We call it the particle that breaks electro weak symmetry. So every particle that feels the weak force, this weakest of forces that we know about that's mediated by those W and Z particles, needs the Higgs boson in order to give it mass, because without the Higgs boson, they wouldn't have mass. If there was no Higgs boson, they wouldn't have mass. And if the Higgs Boson field collapsed, all those particles their masses would go to zero. We talked about how the Higgs boson could destroy the universe if the field collapsed to some lower value. So, yeah, they get mass because the energy in the Higgs Boson field. Okay, But then I guess the caveat is then if something doesn't feel the weak force, it doesn't need the Higgs field. That's right. If something doesn't feel the weak force, it can't talk to the Higgs boson, and it doesn't even need the Higgs boson. It could just have a mass. You could just put it in there. You can just have inertial mass. You can just have inherent inertial mass. That's right. And remember one time we talked about like what is the real mass of the electron and we talked about it in the context of renormal station that the electron itself has no mass, but we add up mass to the electron through these interactions from the Higgs boson. It's not like a core property of the electron itself. It's like the electron when you consider it with all of its like quantum fluctuations and interactions with the Higgs boson. But these other particles, dark matter particles could just have a mass inherent to that. What I feel like, you just took the Higgs field down and not like I thought it was like super fundamental to the universe. But really, when we say that the Higgs field give its particles mass, you really just have to say all the particles that we've know about so far, yeah, yeah, like you have to count it. Right. It gives mass to all the particles that feel the weak force, but there might be particles that don't. That's right, and we think that dark matter doesn't feel the weak force because if it did, we would have seen it already. We have really sensitive detectors looking for dark matter interacting with normal matter, and if dark matter could feel the z for example, if you could use the z boson to talk to protons, then we think we would have seen that already. We've been running those experiments for decades. So we think that dark matter does not feel the weak force, or we would have seen it, and so very likely it gets its mass in some way other than the Higgs boson. Now, there's always some crazy theory out there, there variations of supersymmetry that have loopholes that allow the dark matter to talk to the Higgs boson, or sometimes these theories have a special extra higgs boson, a dark higgs boson that gives mass to the dark matter particles. Yea, the dark higgs boson. Wow, that is a plot twist for a telenovella I've I've ever heard, or the name of the band in the Transformers movie. We're dark higgs Bosons. We're to rock you out and give you mass. You don't feel the weak force, that's right. So we don't know. We don't think that the Higgs boson gives mass to dark matter particles, because otherwise it probably would mean that dark matter particles feel the weak force, and we're pretty sure that's not true. But you know, we're not sure about anything when it comes to dark matter. Oh man, I feel like nine year old Dylan just took down the Higgs field good job, Dylan, A good job Daling. What an awesome question. You just destroyed the Higgs field and it made it seem inadequate for our universe. Yeah, it's a great question. And unfortunately, you know, asking whether or not you could discover dark matter through the Higgs boson it's really just the same thing as asking whether dark matter feels the weak force, and the answer to that it's probably not, probably not, but we don't know, So stay tuned. That's right, and hey, build an awesome dark matter detector out of your legos, Dylan and prove us wrong. Yeah, or or wait a few years and and then actually make the discovery, build your own particle collider. I foresee. Great, thanks for Dylon, keep at it doing. All right, Well, that's an awesome question and in a mind blowing answer, And so let's get to some of these other great questions about black holes and ticonic plates. But first let's take a quick break, all right, Daniel, you and an annual just blew my mind about the Higgs field in the first twenty minutes of this. So let's get to some of these other amazing questions. The next question is from John from Norway and he has a question about articles and black holes. Hi guys, John from postion norwhere listening to one of your episodes about black holes. You talked about how on the density of energy is high enough in a volume of space a black hole is formed. Then why is it that a point particle that has some energy to it, like an electron, does not turn into a black hole. It has energy that is concentrated into a point, so it should have infinitely dense energy concentration. What time I missing here? Please explain? All right, Thank you, John, awesome question. The question is can you make a black hole with the thing? Go particle? Because I guess particles are point masses, so technically they have infinite density. So does that mean that every particle is a black hole? I'm as confused as John here. Yeah, it's a great question. It's basically like, why isn't every electron a black hole? We're all black holes? Is that what we're saying? Everything is a black hole? Everything that feels a week forced me. I feel like you have to add caveats now all over the place. I love this question, and it's this sort of a genre of questions here we get, which is like why isn't X a black hole? You know, like, why didn't the Big Bang just turn into a black hole? Why wasn't the early universe filled with black holes? Or how do we know there aren't black holes out there in the atmosphere. Somebody asked me, what's the smallest possible black hole that could be hiding in my basement? Did you answer, because there probably is a minimum kidding black hole in their basement? I did answer. I did answer. Yeah, you could have a black hole the size of a grain of sand and you wouldn't even really notice it. Oh wow, And it wouldn't grow or would it just evaporate right away? Yeah, it would grow, and so then you would eventually notice it. But you know, until then, while it's small and tiny, you wouldn't notice it. So there's fodder for a horror movie right there. For a few milliseconds, you you could be unaware of a black hole before you you get sucked into it. And that's right, Your life and fantasy could continue unaltered for a few more moments before it comes crashing down, all right. So the question is, if particles are point masses, don't they have infinite density? And if they do, shouldn't they be sort of a black hole in and of themselves. What's the answer, Daniel. The answer is that John has poked a really really good hole in two of our really important theories, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Mostly quantum mechanics though. And he's right that if you applied what we said before on the podcast, that we treat particles as point masses, and you turn around and use general relativity on that and says, well, a point mass has infinite density and so it should be a black hole, then yes, all particles would be black holes. But they aren't. And so what that tells us is that there's a problem in those theories. And you know, you can't just always take these theories and apply them to crazy extreme situations because we don't think they hold up in every single circumstance. He's poked a whole into our theories. He's shine the light on a part of the theory that we know already we don't understand very well, which is what happens in really strong gravity situations for quantum objects, because we just don't have a theory that describes gravity on a quantum scale. We know how to describe gravity for really big stuff, even for really heavy stuff, even for really massive stuff, but for really small stuff on the quantum scale, we don't know how to combine gravity with quantum mechanics and answer these questions. We just don't even really have a theory that makes predictions, right, And it's mostly about scale, right, Like when you get down to the quantum levels, scales like of a single particle, then you know, our theories about gravity that work on like a galactic scale don't necessarily work at those small scales, that's right. And because gravity is so weak, it's very hard to test, like how do you do experiments that test the gravitational pull between two protons? Right? The gravity between two protons is really tiny because protons way almost nothing, have almost zero mass, and they have all these other forces that are always getting in the way. So it's very difficult to probe gravity on the quantum scale. I guess the question is more like, you know, if you have a particle and it's a point particle and I get really really close to it, at some point, do I get sucked into it? Kind of like is there a black hole at the center of every single particle out there? I don't think that there's a black hole the center of every single particle out there. It would really change the behavior of those particles. But I think it is interesting to think about the extreme of these theories, Like when we talk about these particles as point particles, do we really mean physically that there's a dot there infinite density? Of course not right, it's an approximation. We make it our theories because it's convenient. We don't think that there's an actual dot of infinite density there. We talked about on the podcast before, like how small is a particle? What does the size of a particle even mean? And we don't even really have a good answer for that, Like what do you mean the size of the particle? Is it the width of the quantum wave that describes where it is? Is it where it pushes back on things? You know, where it's forcing your probe back? And so there isn't really even from like philosophically speaking, a great definition for the size of a particle. So you can't actually talk about the density of it because you need volume to talk about density. Yeah, exactly, so, but I guess you know from a distance, like if we're talking on a large scale you do treat them as point particles in the math and in the just practically speaking, but once you get down to that small level, then it gets fuzzy. Yeah, we treat them as point particles because it doesn't really matter, doesn't change any of the calculations. It's just sort of convenient. But that's because we're not doing calculations where it makes a difference. And then when it does make a diference, when you're getting really really close, then we can't treat them as point particles anymore. And then it gets really fuzzy, and it depends exactly on the question you're asking, like are you poking at this electron with a photon or with the w moson or with the z boson or with the Higgs boson. You'll get a different sort of response from it based on how you're poking it. So there's not like a concept of the electrons size itself. So that's one thing is like the limitation of our understanding of these things as point particles or not. So Unfortunately, we talked about them as point particles even though you know physically that doesn't make any sense. But we also don't have a better way to think about Well, maybe a good way to approach this question is to, like, let's ignore quantum mechanics for a second. You know, like let's say let's just see plantum mechanics doesn't exist, and we still lived in a classical world and there are point particles like an electron is really is a point of with a certain mask to it. Wouldn't there be a black hole sort of at some point as you get closer to that point. Yes, if you could isolate mass in a very very small region and we remove quantum mechanics from the universe, then general relativity tells us that that would be a black hole. Like in general relativity, there is no minimum mass for a black hole. A black hole can have any arbitrary mass down to like really infinitesimal values. There's no minimum in general relativity. Yeah, Like if you could take the mass of a single electron or a proton or a court and put it in a point, then it would form a black hole. It would be a black hole. Yes, And if your universe was nothing but point particles with masses, then it would be nothing but black holes. Man, all black holes all the time. Yeah, Or think about it the other way, that means quantum mechanics is saving us and just being a universal black holes, right, all right, So then if quantum mechanics didn't exist, every particle, every point mass would be a black hole like you know, electron, if you get close enough down next to it at some point you would see a little event horizon exactly. But then now let's put back in quantum mechanics. And the problem is that, I like how you just like, you know, you're flipping the quantum mechanics knob on the universe here. We're just like you're just like willy nilly, like turning things on and off and expecting us to make sense of it. What happens if I do this? What happens if I do that? Don't do anything more rocking your brain here, You're gonna break things, man. And I just walk into the control room at the Universe stud flipping and you're like, what exactly what if our universe really is a simulation and you got to visit it one day, would you just be flipping these switches just to see what happens. Let's see what happens. Let's answer John's question from Norway, and we'll find out. We'll just see what happens, oops destroyed the universe. I guess that's the answer. I guess what I mean. It's like, if you suddenly turn on quantum mechanics, then you wouldn't be able to see that event horizon around that electron, because that event horizon would be sort of within the fuzziness that quantum mechanics introduces, exactly. So you turn quantum mechanics back on, and then you can't allow the electron to be a point particle anymore, because quantum mechanics says you can't know the location of a bunch of energy that precisely. It is an inherent fuzziness there. So if you replace the point particle with the quantum mechanical blob that has some uncertainty in its location um, and we take sort of the size of that distribution to be the Compton wavelength of the object, right, We just sort of like proportional to the width of its wave function, the thing that tells you where to find it. It's not a great definition for the size of the object, but it's it's one that we can use, and a lot of times in physics we don't have great answers. We just use the best one that we can find, and we just remember that there's like a lot of asterisks associated with it, like this is probably, you know, not correct, but it's also less wrong than anything else we can imagine. That's what we aim for in this podcast. Let's be less wrong than all the other podcasts. Well, you know, John is asking his personal curiosity question about the unif ears, And when you're the first human to like adventure into intellectual territory, you don't always have the tools you need to really get an answer, so you just like do the best you can. You say, well, let's see what happens if we bang on it with this and try to answer it with this, do we get a reasonable answer? And if not, does it inspire something better? And so this is the way you push forward on human knowledge, Right, you give the least wrong answer you can. Yeah, So I guess the the answer then is that the roould be a meaning black hole around every particle. But quantum mechanics, like the blobbiness, the fuzziness of quantum mechanics kind of smushes that out, like it's the fuzziness is bigger than where you would find the black hole around every particle. Yeah, and they actually converge in a really interesting way because the size of the black hole is dependent on the mass of the particle. So it gets bigger as a particle gets more massive, but then this wavelength of the particle gets smaller as it gets more massive. So you can set them equal to find the minimum mass of a black hole generated by a quantum object. So we said early or if no quantum mechanics, there is no minimum. Once you turn quantum mechanics on, you get a minimum mass for a black hole. Interesting meaning like, if I have a massive enough particle, it would are you saying it would make a black hole? I'm massive enough particle, Yes, but this minimum mass is twenty one micrograms, which is like much much heavier than any particle we've ever seen. You know, Electrons, for example, are like ten to the mine is twenty four ms. But here we're talking micrograms, like the massive grain of salt. Oh. I see, so if there was a particle with the mass of a grain of salt, it would be a black hole. Yes, salt tents are all black holes. You heard it here first, as in, don't put salt on your food, you'll turn into a black hole. That's right. Every time you shake that salt canister, you're pouring black holes into your food. Yeah, that's why it salt is salty. Yeah, that's what black holes taste like. Yeah, exactly, We've answered the ancient philosophical question what does the black hole taste like? And why does salt taste salty? Also, all at one, that's right, that's right. That's the black hole flavor theorem, invented by Jorge Chamont and John from Norway. We're gonna share the credit, right all right? So um, okay, So I guess yester then is a particle can be a black hole, but it would have to be super heavy. That's right. And all of this is probably wrong because we just don't have a quantum theory of gravity here. What we're doing is reusing two theories, general relativity and quantum mechanics, both of which we know fail in this regime, and we're trying to like combine them in an awkward way and use both of them to kind of agree on a black hole particle mass. So this is probably wrong, but it's the best answer we can give today. Right, we need to throw some salt over our shoulder and just too, wishes luck. Yes, and that's actually the other caveat which is it might be possible to make black holes out of electrons or protons. The key thing there is not just to increase mass up to like a grain of salt, but to increase the energy, because remember, gravity is in response to energy density, not just mass. And so that's what we do with the Large Hadron collider, for example, we smash protons together at very high energy, and that's why we think there's a possibility that we could one day create a mini black hole out of particles because we've used the energy of the proton to like ramp it up to black holes. Did you just admit that you're trying to make black holes the Large Hadron Collider? I am a d P hoping we make black holes to the large Yes, a d That would be fascinating. We would get to study them. They are also a hundred percent safe. Wow. All right, well, I guess that answer is John's question. The answer is, yes, you can make a particle be a black hole, but it's almost unrealistically heavy or unrealistically fast or what are we saying, or you have to elbow your way into the universe. Control room and turn off quantumic are flipping switches not recommended, by the way. Well, if it ever happens, I'll bring you along, Daniel, and you can restrain me. No, I'm the one who likes to press big red buttons. Like every time I'm in the control room with the LHC is that big red button and I'm just like desperate to touch it and push it and feel the click. All right, well let's get into our last question, which is about tectonic plates. But first let's take a quick break. Al Right. I know, I'm not sure my mind can handle anymore mind blowing. Here we've discovered that the Higgs boson may not interact with dark matter, and that parkles can be black holes. What else we have here today? Well, let's bring it back down to Earth. Here's a question from Canada. Hello, Daniel and Horrey. My name is Hard Jock. I'm from Calgary, Alberta, Canada, and my question for you is what would happen to life on Earth and the landscape of the Earth if the Earth was no longer tectonically active. I look forward to your answer. Thank you, awesome question, Thank you, her dread. It's a tricky question. She's saying, what would happen to the Earth and to us and to life on it if suddenly we didn't have tectonic activity in our mantle, in the in the Earth's crust. Do you think she's worried about an earthquake and hoping tectonic stop, or she's like writing a science fiction novel in which the Earth freezes. No, but it's a fun question. And I like these what if questions because they make us think about how fragile our existence is. We're dependent on so many different processes happening in exactly the right way all the time for life to continue as we know it. So it's fun to imagine, like how life would be different if just one of those things went away. So again, maybe to refresh people, what does the tectonic activity? What does tectonic mean for us? It means essentially that the Earth is still in motion. It's not just a frozen ball of rock. But we're sitting on top of the crust, which is sitting on top of essentially liquid rock, and so these big pieces of land that we still sit on, that we stand on, are floating around and and changing. You know, if you look back at the history of the Earth over millions of years. You can see the continents moving like floating, as if there were, you know, on a pool of hot lava. We're not on solid ground, yeah, we are not in solid ground. In fact, most of the Earth is molten, right, and there's activity down there. There's all sorts of stuff swirling around. And that's good because it means that we have things like magnetic field that we think are generated by the motion of all that hot swirling metal inside the Earth, and so the Earth is not just a frozen cold ball. It's like it's hot and it's active and this stuff going on down there. And we talked about how if because we have a magnetic field, we have kind of a shield against cosmic rays which would strip our atmosphere and basically kill us right pretty quickly. Yes, space is filled with death bullets from the Sun, and if you don't have great shielding, then you get cancer and diet really quick. And the Earth has an awesome literal force field, which is its magnetic field, because these particles are charged, and charged particles bend when they hit a magnetic field and so basically just deflects most of this space radiation, which is good because otherwise we'd all get cancer made all right, So then that's what tectonic means. It means that, you know, the plates of the Earth's cross are still moving around kind of a molten core. And so the question is what would happen if that stopped? Like I guess, first of all, what would cause it to stop? Yeah, it would be pretty hard to stop. Like if you are a cartoon villain and you want to stop you know, the motion of the Earth. That would be pretty difficult because it's at an enormous amount of energy. How much energy is stored in like a cubic mile of liquid iron A lot, right, but we have a lot more than one cubic mile of liquid iron. So it's just an incredibly vast amount of energy. Oh, I see, you were saying a lot of the tectonics come from just having stored energy inside of the Earth. It's not you know, like if the Earth got cooler and cold and frozen, wouldn't we still have some motion? Or would we will we then turn into a solid ball of rock. Now that is the future of the Earth. We think that in a billion or two years, the Earth will cool and it's internals will stop moving as much, and our magnetic field will dim and our tectonics will stop. And that's in fact what happened to Mars. Mars is smaller than the Earth, and so it cooled faster, and so we think that it's essentially frozen on the inside, and it's magnetic field, which it once had is gone, and it has no more plate tectonics. So plate tectonics are sort of like a feature of a younger planet. It tells us that we're still like hot, we're still young, and yes, exactly, hot and flowing. We're still hot. And so one question ask is like, what happened ends when play tectonic stoff? The other one is like, how does that happen? What makes it happen? And to make it happen, you have to basically cool the Earth, which means waiting a billion and a half years, or developing some awesome technology that sucks all the heat out of the center of the Earth, or maybe to prevent it, we could inject energy into the earth. Yes, exactly, we could keep the youth. We could inject botox effectively into the Earth and keep it young and prevent those you know, tectonic wrinkles, you know. The tectonic wrinkles essentially are a way that the Earth gives off some of this energy, burns some of this energy. And so if you like try to freeze the crust of the Earth without cooling it in the inside, and that would like build up somehow, and then where would that heat all go, and so that could be pretty devastating. I see, well, I thought that a lot of like the moltenness and the meltiness and the heat and the energy inside the Earth was due to gravity and like the pressure of all this rock, you know, being compressed down there at the center. So are you saying that we we could freeze that or maybe are you saying that it wouldn't be enough for just from gravitational pressure to keep the magnetic field going. Yeah, it's not enough. Eventually we will cool Like you're right, a lot of it comes from gravitational pressure. There's also a little bit of heat that comes from vision, just like heavy stuff in the center of the Earth decaying and giving off energy. But you know, we're not dense enough to cause fusion life happens in the sun to stay hot and so over a long time, eventually we will cool. Like gravity compressed the Earth to a certain density, but you know, the Earth pushes it back. It has a certain rigidity to it, and so we will not gravitationally collapse to anything more dense. It'll just eventually cool and become, you know, much colder. All right, So I guess then the answer to the question what would happen if tectonics stop? The answer is nothing good. We we get fried by the sun mcnetic field collapses. We get fried by the Sun, but it's unlikely to happen for another one and a half billion years. Yeah, and I wouldn't say nothing good. I mean, living here in southern California where we're always thinking about earthquakes, there is one upside to freezing the Earth is that, hey, no more earthquakes. Right, earthquakes are caused by tectonic activity. We get fried, but we wouldn't have to worry. We wouldn't have to get earthquake insurance, is what you're saying. That's right. And this way we get fried from above instead of from below. Because if there's no tectonic activity in the Earth is cold, that means also no volcanoes, right, So no like devastating lava flows and super volcanoes. You've seen that movie where a super volcano comes up from underneath Los Angeles and basically kills everybody but the good looking actors. Wow, is that the one with the mega shark in it or that swims through magna? I want to see that one. I think there's a Robomega shark too, I believe. I mean, I wouldn't know. I don't watch these kinds of movies, but yeah, and it transforms into an electric guitar, right, so that on the good side, you would have no more earthquakes and you would have normal volcanoes. But yeah, you would also you would have no more athetic field and then you would have no more mountains because remember that mountains like the Himalayas, these are caused by tectonic plates ramming into each other and forcing dirt up and up and up, and then mountains are sort of worn down by rain and wind and all that stuff. And so if you have no more tectonic activity, you don't have any fresh mountains. Wait, are you saying that we're still making mountains today? The Earth is still like making fresh mountains? Yeah, I think the Himalayas get higher every year because India is basically ramming into the rest of Asia and causing the Himalayas, and so that's still going on. A lot of mountains are getting softer and softer because you know that tectonic activity has ceased for whatever reason, and then the rain wears them down. But yeah, there's still some fresh, sharp mountains out there. Well that's the reason I haven't climbed Mount Everest, to be honest, because it's just gonna get taller. You're waiting for it to be waiting for the peak to peak. Yeah, that's right, because if you climb it this year, then next year comes somebody say, well, you didn't climb the real not everything. You missed a centimeter. I want to I want to climate a peak peakness. Okay, all right, I'll sign you up to climate everything about two million years when point seven billion years, I guess that would be all right. Well, thank you for Dran, and thank you to everyone who submitted a question. We had tons of questions, right Daniel, We do, and we love them and we answer every email. So, if you have personal curiosity about the university, if this is something that you were just dying to know, the answer to then, hey, become a scientist or just email us. That's probably easier. And if you're a year old alien, we definitely want to hear from you because we have questions. That's right, how did you stay so young? And lava botox obviously, Daniel answer that's right. All right, Well, thanks for joining us, see you next time. Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge explained. The Universe is a production I Heart Radio. For more podcast for my Heart Radio, visit the i Heart Radio Apple Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows